Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths

1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-444-63264-7
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 46, 168 Seiten

Reihe: Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths

The Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths is a continuous series of books covering all aspects of rare earth science - chemistry, life sciences, materials science, and physics. The main emphasis of the Handbook is on rare earth elements [Sc, Y and the lanthanides (La through Lu)] but whenever relevant, information is also included on the closely related actinide elements. The individual chapters are comprehensive, broad, up-to-date critical reviews written by highly experienced invited experts. The series, which was started in 1978 by Professor Karl A. Gschneidner Jr., combines and integrates both the fundamentals and applications of these elements and now publishes two volumes a year. - Individual chapters are comprehensive, broad, critical reviews - Contributions are written by highly experienced, invited experts - Up-to-date overviews of developments in the field

Autoren/Hrsg.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Fundamentals of Learning and Memory;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Table of Contents;6
5;PREFACE;12
6;PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION;16
7;PART 1: INTRODUCTION;19
7.1;Chapter 1. What is learning? A word definition and some examples;21
7.1.1;A Verbal Definition of Learning;23
7.1.2;Examples of Learning;26
7.1.3;Summary;42
7.2;Chapter 2. Classical and instrumental conditioning;44
7.2.1;Operant and respondent conditioning;45
7.2.2;Classical conditioning;45
7.2.3;Selected examples of instrumental conditioning;60
7.2.4;summary;69
7.3;Chapter 3. Learning tasks: Some similarities and differences;72
7.3.1;Is paired-associate learning related to either classical or instrumental conditioning?;74
7.3.2;Classical and instrumental conditioning compared;79
7.3.3;Similarities among paired-associate learning, classical conditioning, and instrumental conditioning;91
7.3.4;conclusion;102
7.3.5;summary;102
7.4;Chapter 4. Biological limits;104
7.4.1;The "interchangeable-parts" conception of learning;105
7.4.2;The continuum of preparedness;107
7.4.3;Bait shyness: taste aversion;112
7.4.4;Species-specific defense reactions;119
7.4.5;Instinctive drift;121
7.4.6;Imprinting;122
7.4.7;Implications for general learning theory;136
7.4.8;summary;137
8;PART 2: ACQUISITION;140
8.1;Chapter 5. The role of contiguity in learning;144
8.1.1;The concept of contiguity;145
8.1.2;What are stimuli, responses, and associations?;148
8.1.3;The search for noncontiguous learning;155
8.1.4;Contiguity without learning;162
8.1.5;conclusion;164
8.1.6;summary;164
8.2;Chapter 6. The role of practice in learning;167
8.2.1;Introduction;168
8.2.2;Learning curves;171
8.2.3;Hull's system: A theory of gradual growth;180
8.2.4;All-or-none theory;186
8.2.5;Patterns of practice;196
8.2.6;Levels of processing;201
8.2.7;conclusion;203
8.2.8;summary;204
8.3;Chapter 7. Reinforcement: Facts and theory;207
8.3.1;Operational and theoretical definitions;208
8.3.2;Parameters of reinforcement;209
8.3.3;Secondary reinforcement;231
8.3.4;Theories of reinforcement;239
8.3.5;conclusion;244
8.3.6;summary;245
9;PART 3: TRANSFER;250
9.1;Chapter 8. Generalization and discrimination;252
9.1.1;Generalization;253
9.1.2;Discrimination and stimulus control;262
9.1.3;Discrimination processes in humans;274
9.1.4;Response differentiation;284
9.1.5;summary;286
9.2;Chapter 9. Transfer of training;290
9.2.1;Transfer designs: specific and nonspecific transfer;292
9.2.2;Specific transfer: similarity effects;296
9.2.3;The stage analysis of transfer of training;300
9.2.4;Generalization and transfer of training;304
9.2.5;Mediation paradigms and transfer of training;305
9.2.6;Part-whole transfer in free recall;307
9.2.7;Negative transfer in problem solving;309
9.2.8;Transfer effects and animals;309
9.2.9;summary;310
10;PART 4: RETENTION;314
10.1;Chapter 10. Interference and memory;317
10.1.1;Proactive inhibition;318
10.1.2;Retroactive inhibition;321
10.1.3;Decay versus interference;323
10.1.4;Variables affecting PI and RI;324
10.1.5;The generality of interference effects;327
10.1.6;The two-factor theory of forgetting;328
10.1.7;Challenges to unlearning;336
10.1.8;A further challenge: accessibility versus unavailability;338
10.1.9;Reducing interference effects;339
10.1.10;summary;342
10.2;Chapter 11. Information processing and memory;346
10.2.1;The components of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval;347
10.2.2;Separate-storage models;351
10.2.3;Sensory memory, short-term store, long-term store;359
10.2.4;Additional models: more and less;368
10.2.5;Levels of processing;372
10.2.6;A continuum of memory models;374
10.2.7;summary;375
10.3;Chapter 12. Issues in memory;378
10.3.1;Introduction;379
10.3.2;Short-term memory versus long-term memory;380
10.3.3;Recognition versus recall;394
10.3.4;Episodic versus semantic memory;399
10.3.5;Animal memory versus human memory;401
10.3.6;Contextual cues and state-dependent memory;408
10.3.7;summary;409
10.4;Chapter 13. Structure and organization in memory;413
10.4.1;Introduction;414
10.4.2;Word association;416
10.4.3;Chunking and rewriting: 7±2;419
10.4.4;Clustering in recall;422
10.4.5;Subjective organization;425
10.4.6;Lexical memory;428
10.4.7;Stimulus selection: animals and humans;436
10.4.8;Mental images;440
10.4.9;Mnemonics;445
10.4.10;Issues in organization;448
10.4.11;summary;449
11;PART 5: COGNITIVE PROCESSES;454
11.1;Chapter 14. Concepts and problems;458
11.1.1;What is concept formation?;459
11.1.2;Simple concept formation;460
11.1.3;Complex concept learning: rules versus prototypes;470
11.1.4;Animals and concepts;476
11.1.5;Problem solving;477
11.1.6;Gestalt interpretations;478
11.1.7;Three modern ideas: subgoals, heuristics, strategies;481
11.1.8;Transfer in problem solving;486
11.1.9;Planning and problem solving;488
11.1.10;summary;489
11.2;Chapter 15. Language;491
11.2.1;The importance of language;492
11.2.2;Language development;493
11.2.3;Words;496
11.2.4;Sentences;498
11.2.5;Prose;510
11.2.6;Apes and language;519
11.2.7;summary;521
12;PART 6: EXTENSIONS AND APPLICATIONS;524
12.1;Chapter 16. The physical basis of learning;527
12.1.1;Rationale;528
12.1.2;Techniques;529
12.1.3;The physical brain;530
12.1.4;The electrical brain;534
12.1.5;The chemical brain;539
12.1.6;The synapse: chemical and electrical interaction;543
12.1.7;summary;545
12.2;Chapter 17. Behavior modification;548
12.2.1;Introduction;549
12.2.2;Positive reinforcement;552
12.2.3;Negative reinforcement;560
12.2.4;Extinction techniques;561
12.2.5;Punishment techniques;565
12.2.6;Cognitive behavior modification;566
12.2.7;Mixed methods;571
12.2.8;The problem of generalization;575
12.2.9;summary;576
13;REFERENCES;580
14;NAME INDEX;641
15;SUBJECT INDEX;651

Leseproben

Chapter 267 Rare Earth-Doped Crystals for Quantum Information Processing
Philippe Goldner1; Alban Ferrier1,2; Olivier Guillot-Noël1,*    1 Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris, CNRS-Chimie, ParisTech, Paris, France
2 Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France
* In memoriam Graphical Abstract
Quantum information processing (QIP) uses superposition states of photons or atoms to process, store, and transmit data in ways impossible to reach with classical systems. Rare earth-doped crystals have recently emerged as promising systems for these applications, mainly because they exhibit very narrow optical transitions at low temperature. This allows to use these materials as quantum light-matter interfaces or to optically control their quantum states. In this chapter, after a brief introduction to QIP and coherent light-matter interactions, specific spectroscopic properties of rare earth-doped crystals are reviewed. This includes hyperfine structures, coherent properties of optical and hyperfine transitions, as well as techniques to extend coherence lifetimes. Two applications are then discussed in more details: quantum memories and computers. In these last parts, concepts and protocols are presented as well as a few representative experimental examples. Keywords Quantum information processing Single crystals Coherence Hyperfine levels Photon echo Spectral hole burning Acronyms and abbreviations AFC atomic frequency comb AJ hyperfine coupling constant CF crystal field CNOT control not gate CRIB controlled reversible inhomogeneous broadening DD dynamical decoupling EIT electromagnetically induced transparency EPR electron paramagnetic resonance f oscillator strength FID free-induction decay GEM gradient echo memory gJ Landé’s factor HYPER hybrid photon-echo rephasing I nuclear spin quantum number J total angular momentum quantum number L orbital angular momentum quantum number NMR nuclear magnetic resonance P quadrupolar coupling constant QIP quantum information processing QML quantum memories for light rf radiofrequency RHS Raman heterodyne scattering ROSE revival of silenced echo S electron spin quantum number sech hyperbolic secant function SHB spectral hole burning T1 population lifetime T2 coherence lifetime T2hf hyperfine coherence lifetime TM phase memory time TLS two-level system ZEFOZ zero first-order Zeeman shift a absorption coefficient ? asymmetry coupling constant ?n nuclear gyromagnetic factor Geff effective homogeneous linewidth Gh homogeneous linewidth Ginh inhomogeneous linewidth µB Bohr magneton O Rabi frequency (rad s-1) 1 Introduction
Information in digital form is at the heart of nowadays societies, playing a major role in world-scale organizations down to many individual daily activities. Although technology made extraordinary progresses in terms of communication speed and capacity, data storage, or processing power, most of the fundamental concepts of information science were established in the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1984, a quantum algorithm was discovered by Bennett and Brassard for encrypted data exchange (Bennett and Brassard, 1984) and in 1985, Deutsch pioneered quantum computing theory (Deutsch, 1985). This was the start of quantum information processing (QIP), which is currently a major research topic in physics, computer science, mathematics, and material science. Quantum information is a new paradigm, where the classical bits, which can take only discrete values, are replaced by quantum bits, called qubits, which can assume any superposition state. This fundamentally new resource allows data processing, storage, and communication in ways impossible to achieve with classical systems (Kimble, 2008; Nielsen and Chuang, 2000; Stolze and Suter, 2008). QIP is however very demanding on physical systems and its development has triggered important advances in quantum system control and design. In turn, QIP theory has emerged as a unified way to describe the behavior of these systems, independently of the details of their nature, structure, or interactions. QIP uses superposition states, which exist for a significant duration only in isolated systems. Interactions with a fluctuating environment, with many degrees of freedom, destroy them. Examples of quantum systems suitable for QIP are photons (Gisin and Thew, 2007; Kok et al., 2007) and nuclear spins (Chuang et al., 1998; Morton et al., 2008), which can have very low interactions with surrounding electromagnetic fields and atoms. QIP is also investigated in many other systems (Ladd et al., 2010; Lvovsky et al., 2009) such as trapped ions (Blatt and Roos, 2012), superconductors (Clarke and Wilhelm, 2008), electronic and nuclear spins in insulators and semiconductors (Hanson et al., 2007; Wrachtrup and Jelezko, 2006), and ultracold atoms (Bloch et al., 2012; Chanelière et al., 2005). As light is an excellent carrier of quantum information, as it is of classical one, there is also a need to interface it to material systems to store and process information (Northup and Blatt, 2014). Moreover, progress in lasers has also set them as efficient devices for controlling efficiently and accurately quantum systems. In these respects, rare earth (R)-doped crystals have very favorable spectroscopic properties among solid-state systems. The main one is to exhibit extremely narrow optical transitions, equivalent to long-lived superposition states, at cryogenic temperatures (Macfarlane, 2002). Depending on the R ions considered, these transitions span the entire visible and infrared range, including the telecom window at 1.5 µm. Moreover, many R ions have isotopes with nonzero nuclear spins, which can be therefore optically controlled or interfaced with photonic qubits. Finally, R-doped crystals are generally very robust, photostable materials, which can be readily cooled down to liquid helium temperatures in closed cycle cryostats. Their synthesis and spectroscopy have been widely developed for applications in photoluminescence, lasers, scintillation, etc. In addition, these materials are studied for classical information or signal processing, which shares some requirements and schemes with QIP applications (Le Gouët et al., 2006; Li et al., 2008; Thorpe et al., 2011). In this chapter, we review the applications of R-doped crystals to two specific QIP applications: optical quantum memories and quantum computing. After a brief introduction to QIP, we describe coherent light-atom interactions, which allow creating and controlling atomic quantum states. The spectroscopic properties of R-doped crystals are discussed afterward, with a focus on the specific features used in QIP. Finally, the concepts and studies related to quantum memories and computing are presented. In the two last sections, we chose to emphasize a few representative experiments, underlining important points, rather than to give extensive lists of results. As this field is relatively new to the rare-earth community, we felt that this approach could be more useful for the reader. 2 Quantum Information Processing
2.1 Qubits and Gates
The reader is referred to Nielsen and Chuang (2000) or Stolze and Suter (2008) for a detailed presentation of QIP. In the following, we only review the basic concepts of the field. The qubit, or quantum bit, is the elementary unit of information in QIP. It is the equivalent of the bit in classical computing and communication. The bit can take two values, 0 or 1, and is implemented as different states...