Kamal / Isayev Injection Molding

Technology and Fundamentals
1. Auflage 2012
ISBN: 978-3-446-43373-1
Verlag: Carl Hanser
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 950 Seiten

This book attempts to survey the state of the science and technology of the injection molding process. It represents a comprehensive, balanced mix of practical and theoretical aspects for a wide range of injection molding applications. The authors of the 21 chapters are experts and leaders in their respective areas of specialization in the injection molding field. While it is not possible to cover all aspects of such a dynamic growing field, we hope that the reader will find sufficient information and background to become acquainted, at various levels of depth, with key components of the science and technology of injection molding.


Contents:

Injection Molding: Introduction and General Background
Injection Molding Machines, Tools, and Processes
The Plasticating System for Injection Molding Machines
Non-Conventional Injection Molds
Gas Assisted Injection Molding
Water Injection Techniques (WIT)
Flow Induced Fiber Micro-Structure in Injection Molding of Fiber
Reinforced Materials
Injection Foam Molding
Powder Metal Injection Molding
Micro Injection Molding
Internal Visualization of Mold Cavity and Heating Cylinder
Injection Molding Control
Optimal Design for Injection Molding
Development of Injection Molding Simulation
Three-Dimensional Injection Molding Simulation
Viscoelastic Instabilities in Injection Molding
Evolution of Structural Hierarchy in Injection Molded Semicrystalline
Polymers
Modeling Aspects of Post-Filling Steps in Injection Molding
Volumetric and Anisotropic Shrinkage in Injection Moldings of
Thermoplastics
Three-Dimensional Simulation of Gas-Assisted and Co-Injection
Molding Processes
Co-Injection Molding of Polymers

Autoren/Hrsg.

Kamal, Musa R.

Isayev, Avram I.

Fachgebiete

• Technische Wissenschaften Maschinenbau | Werkstoffkunde Produktionstechnik Fertigungstechnik
• Technische Wissenschaften Verfahrenstechnik | Chemieingenieurwesen | Biotechnologie Mechanische und Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
• Technische Wissenschaften Verfahrenstechnik | Chemieingenieurwesen | Biotechnologie Technologie der Kunststoffe und Polymere

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Part I: Background and Overview;26
2.1;1 Injection Molding: Introduction and General Background;28
2.1.1;1.1Scope;28
2.1.2;1.2Introduction;28
2.1.2.1;1.2.1Polymer Processing;28
2.1.2.1.1;1.2.1.1The Plastics Processing System;29
2.1.2.1.2;1.2.1.2Processing Properties of Polymers and Their Compounds;30
2.1.2.2;1.2.2Injection Molding;30
2.1.2.2.1;1.2.2.1Introduction;30
2.1.2.2.2;1.2.2.2General Injection Molding Process Sequence;31
2.1.3;1.3Injection Molding Process Characteritics;34
2.1.3.1;1.3.1The Plastication Stage;34
2.1.3.1.1;1.3.1.1The Melting Zone;36
2.1.3.1.2;1.3.1.2Temperature distribution in the nozzle;38
2.1.3.2;1.3.2The Filling Stage;42
2.1.3.2.1;1.3.2.1Flow Lines and Weld Lines;42
2.1.3.2.2;1.3.2.2Jetting;44
2.1.3.2.3;1.3.2.3Fountain Flow;45
2.1.3.3;1.3.3Heat Transfer in the Cavity;49
2.1.3.3.1;1.3.3.1Measurement of Temperature Distribution in the Cavity;49
2.1.3.3.2;1.3.3.2Numerical Simulation of Heat Transfer in Injection Molding;53
2.1.3.3.3;1.3.3.3Crystallization Kinetics;55
2.1.4;1.4Microstructure of Injection Molded Parts;56
2.1.4.1;1.4.1Crystallinity;57
2.1.4.1.1;1.4.1.1Effect of Crystallinity and Orientation on Birefringence and Tensile Modulus;58
2.1.4.2;1.4.2Morphology;61
2.1.4.3;1.4.3Residual Stresses;65
2.1.4.3.1;1.4.3.1Calculation of Residual Stresses;67
2.1.4.4;1.4.4Microstructure of Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics;71
2.1.4.4.1;1.4.4.1Fiber Length and Concentration Distributions;71
2.1.4.4.2;1.4.4.2Matrix Crystallinity;72
2.1.4.4.3;1.4.4.3Fiber and Matrix Orientation;73
2.1.4.4.4;1.4.4.4Composites Incorporating Conductive Fibers;76
2.1.4.5;1.4.5Distribution of Cure in Thermosets;76
2.1.5;1.5Properties of Injection Molding Compounds and Products;79
2.1.6;Symbol List;86
2.1.7;References;88
3;Part II: Injection Molding Machinery and Systems;96
3.1;2 Injection Molding Machines, Tools, and Processes;98
3.1.1;2.1Injection Molding Machines;98
3.1.1.1;2.1.1Types of Injection Molding Machines;98
3.1.1.1.1;2.1.1.1Horizontal Injection Molding Machines;98
3.1.1.1.2;2.1.1.2Vertical Injection Molding Machines;99
3.1.1.1.3;2.1.1.3Hybrid Injection Molding Machine Composed of Vertical and Horizontal Units;100
3.1.1.2;2.1.2Screw and Barrel Unit;100
3.1.1.2.1;2.1.2.1In-Line Screw Type Injection Molding Machines;101
3.1.1.2.2;2.1.2.2Screw Design for Injection Molding Machines;101
3.1.1.2.3;2.1.2.3Barrels for Injection Molding Machines;102
3.1.1.3;2.1.3Driving Principles;104
3.1.1.3.1;2.1.3.1Hydraulic Injection Molding Machines;105
3.1.1.3.2;2.1.3.2Electric Injection Molding Machines;105
3.1.1.3.2.1;2.1.3.2.1Control Systems for an Electric Injection Molding Machine;106
3.1.1.3.2.2;2.1.3.2.2Injection Mechanism for an Electric Machine;107
3.1.1.3.2.3;2.1.3.2.3Nozzle Contact Mechanism for an Electric Injection Molding Machine;108
3.1.1.3.2.4;2.1.3.2.4Electric Clamping Mechanism;108
3.1.1.3.2.5;2.1.3.2.5Electric Ejection Mechanism;109
3.1.1.3.3;2.1.3.3Man-Machine Interface and Communication Control;109
3.1.1.3.3.1;2.1.3.3.1Man-Machine Interface for an Injection Molding Machine;109
3.1.1.3.3.2;2.1.3.3.2Communication Control;111
3.1.1.4;2.1.4Process Control;111
3.1.1.4.1;2.1.4.1Control of the Filling Process;112
3.1.1.4.2;2.1.4.2Control of the Hold-Pressure Switching Process;112
3.1.1.4.3;2.1.4.3Control of the Hold-Pressure Process;113
3.1.1.4.4;2.1.4.4Control of the Metering Process;114
3.1.1.4.5;2.1.4.5Control of the Mold Opening/Closing Process;114
3.1.1.4.6;2.1.4.6Temperature Control of Each Barrel And Nozzle;114
3.1.1.4.7;2.1.4.7Control of the Injection Compression Process;114
3.1.2;2.2Molds for Injection Molding;115
3.1.2.1;2.2.1Functions of Mold Components;116
3.1.2.2;2.2.2Classification of Molds;119
3.1.2.2.1;2.2.2.1Cold Runner Mold Systems;119
3.1.2.2.1.1;2.2.2.1.12-Plate Molds;119
3.1.2.2.1.2;2.2.2.1.23-Plate Molds;119
3.1.2.2.2;2.2.2.2Hot Runner Mold Systems;121
3.1.2.3;2.2.3Sprue, Runners, and Gates;123
3.1.2.3.1;2.2.3.1Runners;123
3.1.2.3.2;2.2.3.2Gates;123
3.1.2.3.3;2.2.3.3Gate Balance;127
3.1.2.3.4;2.2.3.4Air Vents;128
3.1.2.4;2.2.4Ejection Mechanisms;128
3.1.2.4.1;2.2.4.1Ejector Pins;129
3.1.2.4.2;2.2.4.2Sleeve and a Stripper Plate;129
3.1.2.4.3;2.2.4.3Air Ejector;129
3.1.2.5;2.2.5Mold Cooling;131
3.1.2.6;2.2.6Temperature Control Methods and Mechanisms;131
3.1.2.6.1;2.2.6.1Liquid Medium Control;131
3.1.2.6.2;2.2.6.2Electric Heater Control;132
3.1.3;2.3Injection Molding Processes;132
3.1.3.1;2.3.1In-Mold Build-Up Injection Molding (DSI);132
3.1.3.2;2.3.2Conventional Processes;133
3.1.3.3;2.3.3DSI Molding Process;133
3.1.3.3.1;2.3.3.1Injection Welding Mechanism;133
3.1.3.3.2;2.3.3.2Advantages of the DSI molding process;134
3.1.3.3.3;2.3.3.3Product Examples of the DSI Molding Process;135
3.1.3.4;2.3.4Multi-Material Injection Molding;136
3.1.3.4.1;2.3.4.1Multi-Material Molding Techniques;136
3.1.3.4.2;2.3.4.2Application Examples for the M-DSI Molding Process;139
3.1.3.5;2.3.5Super-High Speed Injection Molding;140
3.1.3.5.1;2.3.5.1Effects of High-Speed Injection;140
3.1.3.5.2;2.3.5.2High-Speed Injection Molding Machines;141
3.1.3.5.3;2.3.5.3Example of Ultra High-Speed Injection Molding;142
3.1.3.6;2.3.6In-Mold Coating Injection Molding;142
3.1.3.6.1;2.3.6.1Surface Decoration Techniques;142
3.1.3.6.2;2.3.6.2Simultaneous Transfer Molding;143
3.1.3.7;2.3.7Insert Injection Molding Process;145
3.1.3.7.1;2.3.7.1Insert Molding Machines;146
3.1.3.8;2.3.8Sandwich Injection Molding;147
3.1.3.8.1;2.3.8.1Process Outline;147
3.1.3.8.2;2.3.8.2Construction of Sandwich Nozzles;147
3.1.3.8.3;2.3.8.3Features of Sandwich Molding;149
3.1.3.9;2.3.9Plastic Magnet Injection Molding;150
3.1.3.9.1;2.3.9.1Molding System and Magnetic Field Generating Methods;151
3.1.3.9.2;2.3.9.2Important Issues with Injection Molding of Plastic Magnets;152
3.1.3.9.3;2.3.9.3Key Points of Mold Design for Plastic Magnets;153
3.1.3.10;2.3.10Long-Glass Fiber Reinforced Injection Molding;153
3.1.3.10.1;2.3.10.1Long Fiber Reinforced Plastics Injection Molding;154
3.1.3.10.2;2.3.10.2Properties of Long Glass Fiber (GF) Reinforced Plastics;154
3.1.3.10.3;2.3.10.3Applications of Long-Fiber Molding to Large-Size Products;155
3.1.4;References;155
3.2;3The Plasticating System for Injection Molding Machines;158
3.2.1;3.1Introduction;158
3.2.2;3.2The Plasticating System;159
3.2.3;3.3Operation of Plasticating Screw Machines;161
3.2.3.1;3.3.1Proper Operation;163
3.2.4;3.4The Melting Process;163
3.2.5;3.5Basic Screw Design;171
3.2.5.1;3.5.1PS Injection Molding Case Study;172
3.2.6;3.6High-Performance Screw Designs;173
3.2.7;3.7Secondary Mixing Processes and Devices;179
3.2.7.1;3.7.1Dynamic Mixers;186
3.2.8;3.8Screw Design Issues Causing Resin Degradation;188
3.2.9;3.9Non-Return Valve;190
3.2.10;Nomenclature;191
3.2.11;References;193
3.3;4Non-Conventional Injection Molds;196
3.3.1;4.1Introduction;196
3.3.2;4.2Molds for Multi-Material Molding;198
3.3.2.1;4.2.1Co-Injection;198
3.3.2.2;4.2.2Overmolding;201
3.3.3;4.3Injection Units, Layout, and Runner System;206
3.3.3.1;4.3.1Equipment;206
3.3.3.2;4.3.2Hot Runners;208
3.3.3.3;4.3.3Material Interactions;208
3.3.4;4.4Molds for Injection-Welding;209
3.3.5;4.5Molds for Backmolding;211
3.3.5.1;4.5.1Molding over Textiles or Fabrics;211
3.3.5.2;4.5.2In-Mold Labeling;216
3.3.5.3;4.5.3In-Mold Decoration;217
3.3.6;References;219
3.4;5Gas Assisted Injection Molding;220
3.4.1;5.1Introduction;220
3.4.1.1;5.1.1Gas Assisted Injection Molding;220
3.4.1.2;5.1.2Advantages and Limitations of GAIM;223
3.4.1.3;5.1.3Materials for GAIM;224
3.4.2;5.2Molding Equipment and Process;224
3.4.2.1;5.2.1Gas Injection Unit and Injection Nozzle;224
3.4.2.2;5.2.2Gas Injection into the Part;225
3.4.2.3;5.2.3Gas Nozzle;227
3.4.2.4;5.2.4Pressure Development during the Molding Process;227
3.4.2.5;5.2.5Gas Penetration Behavior in Molded Parts;228
3.4.2.6;5.2.6Gas Venting and Recycling;230
3.4.2.7;5.2.7Moldability Diagram for GAIM;231
3.4.3;5.3Process Modeling;232
3.4.4;5.4Part/Mold Designs and Molding Guidelines;234
3.4.4.1;5.4.1Gas Channel Geometry;234
3.4.4.2;5.4.2Gas Channel Layout;236
3.4.4.3;5.4.3Effect of Gravity;236
3.4.4.4;5.4.4Residual Wall Thickness Distribution;237
3.4.4.5;5.4.5Gas Dissolution into the Polymer;238
3.4.4.6;5.4.6Gas Fingering;240
3.4.4.7;5.4.7Unstable Gas Penetrations;241
3.4.4.8;5.4.8Weld Lines Caused by the Flow-Lead Effect;242
3.4.4.9;5.4.9Molding of Fiber Reinforced Materials;243
3.4.5;5.5Concluding Remarks;245
3.4.6;List of symbols;245
3.4.7;References;246
3.5;6Water Injection Techniques (WIT);248
3.5.1;6.1Introduction;248
3.5.2;6.2Processing Technology;249
3.5.2.1;6.2.1Course of Process;249
3.5.2.2;6.2.2Process Variants;250
3.5.2.2.1;6.2.2.1Short-Shot Process;251
3.5.2.2.2;6.2.2.2Full-Shot Process;251
3.5.2.2.3;6.2.2.3Full-Shot Process with Overspill;251
3.5.2.2.4;6.2.2.4Melt Push Back Process;251
3.5.2.2.5;6.2.2.5Core Pulling Process;252
3.5.2.2.6;6.2.2.6Rinsing/Flushing Process;252
3.5.2.3;6.2.3Comparison between GAIM and WIT;253
3.5.2.3.1;6.2.3.1Limitations of GAIM;254
3.5.2.3.2;6.2.3.2Cycle Times;254
3.5.2.3.3;6.2.3.3Part Properties;255
3.5.2.3.3.1;6.2.3.3.1Residual Wall Thicknesses (RWT);255
3.5.2.3.3.2;6.2.3.3.2Shrinkage/Warpage;257
3.5.2.3.3.3;6.2.3.3.3Fluid-Sided Surface Qualities;257
3.5.2.3.3.4;6.2.3.3.4Typical Part Defects;258
3.5.3;6.3Plant and Injector Technology;259
3.5.3.1;6.3.1Concepts and Operation Technology for Water Pressure Generating Units;259
3.5.3.2;6.3.2Injector Technology for Water Injection Technique;262
3.5.3.2.1;6.3.2.1Demands on WIT Injectors;262
3.5.3.3;6.3.3Classification and Presentation of Different WIT-Injectors;264
3.5.3.3.1;6.3.3.1Operating Method;264
3.5.3.3.2;6.3.3.2Operating Direction;266
3.5.3.3.3;6.3.3.3Alignment in the Mold;267
3.5.3.4;6.3.4General Design Remarks for WIT Injectors;267
3.5.3.4.1;6.3.4.1Excellent Process Reliability;268
3.5.3.4.2;6.3.4.2Specific Controllability;268
3.5.4;6.4WIT Compatible Part Design;268
3.5.4.1;6.4.1Injector Embedding;268
3.5.4.2;6.4.2General Design Guidelines for WIT Articles;269
3.5.4.3;6.4.3Tubular Articles;270
3.5.4.3.1;6.4.3.1Cross Sections;270
3.5.4.3.2;6.4.3.2Aspect Ratio;271
3.5.4.3.3;6.4.3.3Curves and Redirections;271
3.5.4.3.4;6.4.3.4Change of Diameter;272
3.5.4.4;6.4.4Compact Parts with Integrated Thick-Walled Sections;273
3.5.5;List of Abbreviations and Symbols;273
3.5.6;References;274
4;Part III: Injection Molding of Complex Materials;276
4.1;7Flow Induced Fiber Micro-Structure in Injection Molding of Fiber Reinforced Materials;278
4.1.1;7.1Introduction;278
4.1.2;7.2Observations;279
4.1.2.1;7.2.1Fiber Length Distribution;279
4.1.2.2;7.2.2Fiber Concentration;280
4.1.2.3;7.2.3Fiber Orientation;281
4.1.2.3.1;7.2.3.1Orientation Mechanisms;281
4.1.2.3.2;7.2.3.2Qualitative Observations;281
4.1.2.3.3;7.2.3.3Quantification Tools: Orientation Distribution Function, Orientation Tensors;283
4.1.2.3.4;7.2.3.4Experimental Methods;283
4.1.2.3.5;7.2.3.5Results;285
4.1.3;7.3Calculation of Fiber Orientation;286
4.1.3.1;7.3.1Orientation Models;286
4.1.3.1.1;7.3.1.1The Standard Model;286
4.1.3.1.2;7.3.1.2Choice of the Interaction Coefficient and the Closure Approximation;288
4.1.3.1.2.1;7.3.1.2.1Value of the Interaction Coefficient;288
4.1.3.1.2.2;7.3.1.2.2The Closure Approximation Issue;289
4.1.3.1.3;7.3.1.3Discussion of the Standard Model;290
4.1.3.1.4;7.3.1.4Application to Injection Molding;290
4.1.3.2;7.3.2Rheological Models;291
4.1.3.2.1;7.3.2.1Overview on Rheological Measurements;291
4.1.3.2.2;7.3.2.2Introduction to Behavior Laws;292
4.1.4;7.4Conclusions;293
4.1.5;List of Symbols;294
4.1.6;References;295
4.2;8Injection Foam Molding;298
4.2.1;8.1Introduction;298
4.2.2;8.2Injection Foam Molding Technologies: Background;299
4.2.2.1;8.2.1Structural-Foam Molding;299
4.2.2.1.1;8.2.1.1Low-Pressure Foam Molding;299
4.2.2.2;8.2.2High-Pressure Foam Molding;300
4.2.2.2.1;8.2.2.1Co-Injection Foam Molding;301
4.2.2.2.2;8.2.2.2Gas Counter-Pressure Foam Molding;302
4.2.2.2.3;8.2.2.3Sequential Injection Foam Molding;303
4.2.2.3;8.2.3Microcellular Injection Foam Molding;304
4.2.2.3.1;8.2.3.1Background on Microcellular Foam Processing;304
4.2.2.3.2;8.2.3.2Development of Microcellular Injection Foam Molding;305
4.2.2.3.2.1;8.2.3.2.1Batch Microcellular Processing;305
4.2.2.3.2.2;8.2.3.2.2Semi-Continuous Microcellular Processing;306
4.2.2.3.2.3;8.2.3.2.3Continuous Microcellular Processing;306
4.2.2.3.2.4;8.2.3.2.4Microcellular Injection Foam Molding;307
4.2.3;8.3Fundamentals of Foam Injection Molding;309
4.2.3.1;8.3.1Foaming Additives;309
4.2.3.1.1;8.3.1.1Cell-Nucleating Agents;309
4.2.3.1.2;8.3.1.2Blowing Agents;310
4.2.3.1.2.1;8.3.1.2.1Chemical Blowing Agents;310
4.2.3.1.2.2;8.3.1.2.2Physical Blowing Agents;310
4.2.3.2;8.3.2Thermophysical and Rheological Properties of Polymer/Gas Mixtures;310
4.2.3.2.1;8.3.2.1Solubility and Diffusivity;310
4.2.3.2.1.1;8.3.2.1.1Solubility;310
4.2.3.2.1.2;8.3.2.1.2Diffusivity;313
4.2.3.2.2;8.3.2.2Viscosity of Polymer/Gas Mixtures;314
4.2.3.2.3;8.3.2.3Surface Tension of Polymer/Gas Mixtures;316
4.2.3.3;8.3.3Formation of Foamable Compositions;316
4.2.3.3.1;8.3.3.1Foamable Compositions in CBA Processing;316
4.2.3.3.2;8.3.3.2Foamable Compositions in PBA Processing;317
4.2.3.3.3;8.3.3.3Dissolution of Gas in Polymers;317
4.2.3.4;8.3.4Cell Nucleation;318
4.2.3.4.1;8.3.4.1Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Nucleation;318
4.2.3.4.1.1;8.3.4.1.1Homogeneous Nucleation;318
4.2.3.4.1.2;8.3.4.1.2Heterogeneous Nucleation;320
4.2.3.4.2;8.3.4.2Nucleation and Pressure Profiles during Filling;320
4.2.3.5;8.3.5Filling and Cell Growth;323
4.2.3.5.1;8.3.5.1Geometric Singularity and Weld Lines;324
4.2.3.5.2;8.3.5.2Void Fraction Control;324
4.2.3.5.3;8.3.5.3Cell Growth in a Mold;324
4.2.4;8.4Foam Molding Machines and Applications;325
4.2.4.1;8.4.1Foam Molding Machines;325
4.2.4.2;8.4.2Applications;327
4.2.5;8.5Future Developments;327
4.2.6;List of Symbols and Abbreviation;328
4.2.7;References;329
4.3;9Powder Metal Injection Molding;334
4.3.1;9.1Opportunity;334
4.3.2;9.2Process Overview;335
4.3.3;9.3Feedstock;338
4.3.3.1;9.3.1Powders;338
4.3.3.2;9.3.2Binders;339
4.3.3.3;9.3.3Compounds;341
4.3.4;9.4Part and Tool Design;342
4.3.4.1;9.4.1Part Design;342
4.3.4.2;9.4.2Mold Design;344
4.3.5;9.5Molding;347
4.3.5.1;9.5.1Equipment;347
4.3.5.2;9.5.2Operations;347
4.3.6;9.6Debinding;348
4.3.7;9.7Sintering;349
4.3.7.1;9.7.1Fundamentals;349
4.3.7.2;9.7.2Furnaces;354
4.3.7.3;9.7.3Setters;357
4.3.8;9.8Post Sintering Treatments;358
4.3.8.1;9.8.1Heat Treatment;358
4.3.8.2;9.8.2Hot Isostatic Pressing;360
4.3.8.3;9.8.3Secondary Operations;360
4.3.9;9.9Material Properties;361
4.3.10;List of Symbols;363
4.3.11;References;363
4.3.12;Acknowledgements;364
4.4;10Micro Injection Molding;366
4.4.1;10.1Introduction;366
4.4.2;10.2Why Is Polymer Processing so Interesting for Microsystems Engineering?;367
4.4.3;10.3The Process Specialties of Micro Injection Molding;368
4.4.3.1;10.3.1Types of Micro Components;370
4.4.3.2;10.3.2Machine Technology for Micro Injection Molding;371
4.4.3.3;10.3.3Fabrication of Microstructured Mold Inserts For Micro Injection Molding;374
4.4.3.4;10.3.4Special Types of Micro Injection Molding;375
4.4.3.5;10.3.5Simulation;376
4.4.4;10.4Micro Reaction Injection Molding;378
4.4.4.1;10.4.1Reactive Resin Polymerization Methods;378
4.4.4.2;10.4.2Thermally Initiated Reaction Injection Molding of LIGA-Structures;379
4.4.4.3;10.4.3Development of Light Induced Reaction Molding (Photomolding) Techniques;381
4.4.4.4;10.4.4UV-Embossing of Photocurable Systems;383
4.4.4.5;10.4.5Photomolding of Composites;385
4.4.5;10.5Micro Powder Injection Molding (MicroPIM);387
4.4.5.1;10.5.1Introduction to MicroPIM;387
4.4.5.2;10.5.2Metal and Ceramic Powders for PIM;390
4.4.5.3;10.5.3Commercially Available PIM Feedstocks and Binders;391
4.4.5.4;10.5.4Binder Systems for MicroPIM;392
4.4.5.5;10.5.5Compounding Feedstocks for MicroPIM;393
4.4.5.6;10.5.6Rheology Measurements of PIM Feedstocks;394
4.4.5.7;10.5.7Machinery for MicroPIM;396
4.4.5.8;10.5.8Molding Tools for MicroPIM;396
4.4.5.9;10.5.9Patterning Process for PIM Microparts;400
4.4.5.9.1;10.5.9.1Debinding of MicroPIM Green Compacts;401
4.4.5.9.2;10.5.9.2Sintering Process for MicroPIM Parts;403
4.4.5.10;10.5.10MicroPIM Research;403
4.4.6;10.6Two-Component Micro Injection Molding (2C-MicroPIM);403
4.4.6.1;10.6.1Machine Technology for Micro Two-Component Injection Molding;404
4.4.6.2;10.6.2Mold Technology for Two-Component Micro Injection Molding;406
4.4.6.3;10.6.3Contact-Strength for the Multi-Component Injection Molding;406
4.4.6.4;10.6.4Sequence of the Two-Component Micro Injection Molding Process;407
4.4.6.5;10.6.5Variothermal Mold Temperature Control for Two-Component Injection Molding;408
4.4.6.6;10.6.6Applications of Multi-Component Injection Molding;409
4.4.6.6.1;10.6.6.1Insert Injection Molding;409
4.4.6.6.2;10.6.6.2Overmolding;409
4.4.6.6.3;10.6.6.3In-Mold Assembly;410
4.4.6.6.4;10.6.6.43D-MID-Technology;410
4.4.6.6.5;10.6.6.5Two-Component Powder Injection Molding;410
4.4.7;10.7Summary and Outlook;411
4.4.8;List of Abbreviations;412
4.4.9;References;414
5;Part IV:Process Visualization, Control, Optimization, and Simulation;420
5.1;11Internal Visualization of Mold Cavity and Heating Cylinder;422
5.1.1;11.1Introduction;422
5.1.2;11.2Dynamic Visualization Techniques for the Inside of the Mold Cavity;422
5.1.2.1;11.2.1Overview of Dynamic Visualization Techniques;423
5.1.2.1.1;11.2.1.1Light transmission method;423
5.1.2.1.2;11.2.1.2Light Reflection Method;424
5.1.2.1.3;11.2.1.3Light-Section Method;426
5.1.2.2;11.2.2Glass-Inserted Mold (2D, 3D);426
5.1.2.3;11.2.3Back-Lighting Mold;431
5.1.2.4;11.2.4Laser-Light-Sheet Mold;433
5.1.2.5;11.2.5Runner-Exchanging System;436
5.1.2.6;11.2.6Automatic Tracking System under High Magnifications;439
5.1.2.7;11.2.7Visualization Technique for Ultra-High-Speed Injection Molding;441
5.1.3;11.3Static Visualization Techniques for the Inside of a Mold Cavity;443
5.1.3.1;11.3.1Overview of Static Visualization Techniques;443
5.1.3.1.1;11.3.1.1Plugging of Colored Materials;443
5.1.3.1.2;11.3.1.2Lamination of Colored Materials;444
5.1.3.2;11.3.2Runner-Exchanging System and Gate-Magnetization Method;445
5.1.4;11.4Visualization Heating Cylinder;449
5.1.4.1;11.4.1Overview of Visualization Techniques for the Inside of a Heating Cylinder;450
5.1.4.2;11.4.2Glass-Inserted Heating Cylinder;453
5.1.4.3;11.4.3Visualization Unit inside Hopper Throat, Check-Ring, and Reservoir Areas;456
5.1.4.4;11.4.4Image Processing Method for Laminated Slit Images;459
5.1.5;References;460
5.2;12Injection Molding Control;464
5.2.1;12.1Introduction;464
5.2.2;12.2Basic Concepts and Elements of Control Systems;465
5.2.2.1;12.2.1Basic Control System Structure;465
5.2.2.1.1;12.2.1.1Open Loop System;466
5.2.2.1.2;12.2.1.2Closed-Loop System;466
5.2.2.2;12.2.2Basic Elements of Control Systems;467
5.2.2.2.1;12.2.2.1Controlled Variables in Injection Molding;467
5.2.2.2.2;12.2.2.2Actuators in Injection Molding;468
5.2.2.2.3;12.2.2.3Measurement of Output Variables;469
5.2.2.2.4;12.2.2.4The Controller;469
5.2.3;12.3Control Applications;470
5.2.3.1;12.3.1Machine Sequence Control;470
5.2.3.2;12.3.2Adaptive Control;471
5.2.3.2.1;12.3.2.1Dynamic Analysis of Injection Molding Process Variables;471
5.2.3.2.2;12.3.2.2Adaptive Control Background;475
5.2.3.2.3;12.3.2.3RLS Estimation;475
5.2.3.2.4;12.3.2.4Pole Placement Design;476
5.2.3.2.5;12.3.2.5Solving the Diophantine Equation;477
5.2.3.2.6;12.3.2.6Direct Implementation of Adaptive Pole-Placement Control;479
5.2.3.2.7;12.3.2.7Improvement I – Anti-Windup Estimation;479
5.2.3.2.8;12.3.2.8Improvement II – Adaptive Feedforward Control;482
5.2.3.2.9;12.3.2.9Improvement III – Cycle-To-Cycle Adaptation;484
5.2.3.2.10;12.3.2.10Test of Different Conditions;485
5.2.3.2.11;12.3.2.11Summary;486
5.2.3.3;12.3.3Model Predictive Control;487
5.2.3.3.1;12.3.3.1MPC Background;487
5.2.3.3.2;12.3.3.2GPC Design for Injection Velocity;489
5.2.3.3.3;12.3.3.3Step Response Comparison of GPC and Pole-Placement;490
5.2.3.3.4;12.3.3.4Adaptive GPC Experiments with Different Conditions;490
5.2.3.3.5;12.3.3.5Summary;492
5.2.3.4;12.3.4Fuzzy Model Based Control [16];493
5.2.3.4.1;12.3.4.1Fuzzy Inference System;493
5.2.3.4.2;12.3.4.2Fuzzy Multi-Model and Application to Injection Velocity;494
5.2.3.4.3;12.3.4.3Fuzzy Multi-Model Predictive Control;499
5.2.3.4.4;12.3.4.4On-Line Identification of Model Parameters of Rule Consequents;499
5.2.3.4.5;12.3.4.5Batch Learning of Membership Function Parameters of Rule Premises;500
5.2.3.4.6;12.3.4.6Experimental Test of Fuzzy Multi-Model Based Predictive Control;501
5.2.3.4.7;12.3.4.7Summary;506
5.2.3.5;12.3.5Iterative Learning Control [18];506
5.2.3.5.1;12.3.5.1Iterative Learning Control Background;507
5.2.3.5.2;12.3.5.2P-Type Learning Control Algorithm;508
5.2.3.5.3;12.3.5.3Optimal Iterative Learning Controller;510
5.2.3.5.4;12.3.5.4Robust and Convergence Analysis;513
5.2.3.5.5;12.3.5.5Selection of the Weighting Matrices;515
5.2.3.5.6;12.3.5.6Injection Velocity Control with Optimal ILC;516
5.2.3.5.7;12.3.5.7Summary;519
5.2.3.6;12.3.6Statistical Process Monitoring of Injection Molding;519
5.2.3.7;12.3.7Statistical Process Monitoring for Continuous Processes;519
5.2.3.8;12.3.8Statistical Monitoring of Batch Processes;522
5.2.3.9;12.3.9Stage-Based Statistical Monitoring of Injection Molding [61–63];524
5.2.3.9.1;12.3.9.1Fault #1: Material Disturbance;526
5.2.3.9.2;12.3.9.2Fault #2: Check-Ring Failure;528
5.2.4;12.4Control Perspective and Challenges for Injection Molding;529
5.2.4.1;12.4.1Control Perspective;529
5.2.4.2;12.4.2Major Challenges of Injection Molding Control;531
5.2.4.2.1;12.4.2.1Implementation of Robust Control Algorithms;531
5.2.4.2.2;12.4.2.2New Measurements;531
5.2.4.2.3;12.4.2.3Comprehensive Quality Modeling;531
5.2.4.2.4;12.4.2.4Closed-Loop Quality Control;532
5.2.4.2.5;12.4.2.5Process and Control Performance Monitoring;532
5.2.5;References;532
5.3;13Optimal Design for Injection Molding;536
5.3.1;13.1Introduction;536
5.3.2;13.2Basic Equations for the Mold Filling Problem;538
5.3.2.1;13.2.1Mathematical Model: Hele-Shaw and Energy Equations;538
5.3.2.2;13.2.2Boundary Conditions;539
5.3.2.3;13.2.3Numerical Discretization;540
5.3.3;13.3Optimization Techniques;541
5.3.3.1;13.3.1Optimization Concept;541
5.3.3.2;13.3.2Optimization Problems;541
5.3.3.3;13.3.3Numerical Solution of Optimization Problems;542
5.3.3.3.1;13.3.3.1Zero-Order Methods;543
5.3.3.3.2;13.3.3.2First- and Second-Order Methods;544
5.3.3.3.3;13.3.3.3Combination of Zero-Order and Gradient-Based Methods;545
5.3.4;13.4Gradient-Based Methods and Sensitivity Analysis;546
5.3.4.1;13.4.1Direct Sensitivity Equation Method;546
5.3.4.2;13.4.2Adjoint Equation Method;547
5.3.4.3;13.4.3Comparison of Solution Methods;549
5.3.4.4;13.4.4Choice of a Method;549
5.3.5;13.5Optimal Design for Injection Molding;550
5.3.5.1;13.5.1Problem Parameters;550
5.3.5.2;13.5.2Problem Definition;550
5.3.5.3;13.5.3Direct Sensitivity of the State Equations;551
5.3.5.4;13.5.4Sensitivity Formulation of the Objective Function;553
5.3.5.5;13.5.5Parameterization of the Injection Pressure and Sensitivities;553
5.3.5.6;13.5.6Sensitivities of the Function Constraints;555
5.3.5.7;13.5.7Flow-Front Tracking and Sensitivities;555
5.3.5.8;13.5.8Parameterization of the Flow Domain and Sensitivities;556
5.3.6;13.6Algorithm;559
5.3.7;13.7Illustrative Applications;559
5.3.7.1;13.7.1Automotive Part: Single Gate Optimization;559
5.3.7.2;13.7.2Automotive Lens: Multiple Gate Optimization;566
5.3.7.3;13.7.3Multiple Gate Optimization: More than One Optimal Solution;570
5.3.8;13.8Conclusions;572
5.3.9;List of Symbols and Abbreviations;572
5.3.10;References;574
5.4;14Development of Injection Molding Simulation;578
5.4.1;14.1Introduction;578
5.4.2;14.2The Molding Process;578
5.4.3;14.3The Problem;579
5.4.3.1;14.3.1Basic Physics of the Process;580
5.4.3.2;14.3.2Material Properties;580
5.4.3.3;14.3.3Geometric Complexity of Mold and Part;581
5.4.3.4;14.3.4Process Stability;581
5.4.4;14.4Why Simulate Injection Molding?;581
5.4.5;14.5Early Academic Work on Simulation;582
5.4.5.1;14.5.1Boundary Conditions and Solidification;583
5.4.6;14.6Early Commercial Simulation;584
5.4.7;14.7Simulation in the 1980s;586
5.4.8;14.8Academic Work in the 1980s;587
5.4.8.1;14.8.1Mold Filling;587
5.4.8.2;14.8.2Mold Cooling;590
5.4.8.3;14.8.3Warpage Analysis;590
5.4.8.4;14.8.4Fiber Orientation;591
5.4.9;14.9Commercial Simulation in the 1980s;593
5.4.9.1;14.9.1Codes Developed by Large Industrials and not for Sale;595
5.4.9.1.1;14.9.1.1General Electric;595
5.4.9.1.2;14.9.1.2Philips/Technical University of Eindhoven;595
5.4.9.2;14.9.2Codes developed by Large Industrials for Sale in the Marketplace;596
5.4.9.2.1;14.9.2.1SDRC;596
5.4.9.2.2;14.9.2.2GRAFTEK;596
5.4.9.3;14.9.3Companies Devoted to Developing and Selling Simulation Codes;596
5.4.9.3.1;14.9.3.1AC Technology;596
5.4.9.3.2;14.9.3.2Moldflow;597
5.4.9.3.3;14.9.3.3Simcon Kunststofftechnische Software GmbH;598
5.4.10;14.10Simulation in the 1990s;598
5.4.11;14.11Academic Work in the 1990s;599
5.4.12;14.12Commercial Developments in the 1990s;600
5.4.12.1;14.12.1SDRC;600
5.4.12.2;14.12.2Moldflow;601
5.4.12.3;14.12.3AC Technology/C-MOLD;605
5.4.12.4;14.12.4Simcon;605
5.4.12.5;14.12.5Sigma Engineering;605
5.4.12.6;14.12.6Timon;606
5.4.12.7;14.12.7Transvalor;606
5.4.12.8;14.12.8CoreTech Systems;606
5.4.13;14.13Simulation Science since 2000;607
5.4.14;14.14Commercial Developments since 2000;609
5.4.14.1;14.14.1Moldflow;609
5.4.14.2;14.14.2Timon;610
5.4.14.3;14.14.3Core Tech Systems;611
5.4.15;14.15The Simulation Market Today;611
5.4.16;14.16Conclusion;612
5.4.17;14.17Appendix: 2.5D Analysis;612
5.4.17.1;14.17.1Material Properties;613
5.4.17.2;14.17.2Geometric Considerations;614
5.4.17.3;14.17.3Simplification by Mathematical Analysis;615
5.4.18;14.18Acknowledgments;617
5.4.19;References;617
5.5;15Three-Dimensional Injection Molding Simulation;624
5.5.1;15.1Introduction;624
5.5.1.1;15.1.1Process Background;624
5.5.1.2;15.1.2Historical Background on 3D Simulation;625
5.5.1.3;15.1.3General Numerical Techniques for 3D Injection Molding Simulation;627
5.5.1.3.1;15.1.3.1Constitutive Equations;627
5.5.1.3.2;15.1.3.2Boundary Conditions;630
5.5.1.4;15.1.4Numerical Issues in 3D Injection Molding;631
5.5.2;15.2Temperature Independent Flows and Finite Element Techniques;632
5.5.2.1;15.2.1Generalized Stokes Problem;632
5.5.2.1.1;15.2.1.1Mixed Finite Elements for Newtonian Flows;632
5.5.2.1.2;15.2.1.2More General Viscous Resolution;636
5.5.2.2;15.2.2Extension to Weakly Isothermal Compressible Flows;637
5.5.2.3;15.2.3Extension to Navier and Stokes Equations;639
5.5.2.4;15.2.4Extension to Viscoelastic Flows;641
5.5.2.4.1;15.2.4.1Viscoelasticity and Constitutive Models;642
5.5.2.4.2;15.2.4.2Flow Determination for Viscoelastic Materials;643
5.5.3;15.3Free Surface Determination;647
5.5.3.1;15.3.1Techniques to Determine the Interface;647
5.5.3.2;15.3.2The VOF (Volume of Fluid Method);648
5.5.3.2.1;15.3.2.1Resolution of the Transport Equation;648
5.5.3.2.2;15.3.2.2Advantages and Disadvantages of the VOF Method;650
5.5.3.3;15.3.3The Level Set Method;652
5.5.3.3.1;15.3.3.1Mathematical Considerations;652
5.5.3.3.2;15.3.3.2Resolution of the Transport Equation;653
5.5.3.3.3;15.3.3.3Advantages and Disadvantages of the Level Set Method;653
5.5.4;15.4Thermomechanical Coupling;655
5.5.4.1;15.4.1Material Properties Coupling;655
5.5.4.2;15.4.2The Temperature Balance Equation;657
5.5.4.3;15.4.3Numerical Solution;657
5.5.5;15.5Advanced Computational Techniques;659
5.5.5.1;15.5.1Meshing;659
5.5.5.1.1;15.5.1.1Generation and Anisotropic Adaptation of Static Interfaces;659
5.5.5.1.2;15.5.1.2Multidomain and Interface Capturing;661
5.5.5.2;15.5.2Parallel Computing;662
5.5.5.3;15.5.3Application to Filling Simulation with Mold Coupling;664
5.5.6;15.6Application to a 3D Part;666
5.5.7;15.7Conclusion;669
5.5.8;Acknowledgements;670
5.5.9;Appendixes;670
5.5.9.1;Appendix 15.1: Viscosity Equations;670
5.5.9.2;Appendix 15.2: Tait Equation Parameters;671
5.5.10;Notations;672
5.5.11;References;675
5.6;16Viscoelastic Instabilities in Injection Molding;678
5.6.1;16.1Introduction;678
5.6.2;16.2Background, Literature Review;679
5.6.3;16.3Experimental Motivation;681
5.6.4;16.4Analysis;683
5.6.5;16.5Numerical Modelling: Governing Equations;685
5.6.6;16.6Numerical Modelling: Finite Element Analysis;687
5.6.7;16.7Domain Perturbation Technique;693
5.6.8;16.8Results;697
5.6.8.1;16.8.1Steady State Results;698
5.6.8.2;16.8.2Stability Results;702
5.6.9;16.9Discussion;703
5.6.10;Symbols and Notation;705
5.6.11;References;707
6;Part V: Microstructure Development, Characterization, and Prediction;710
6.1;17Evolution of Structural Hierarchy in Injection Molded Semicrystalline Polymers;712
6.1.1;17.1Introduction;712
6.1.2;17.2Fundamentals of the Injection Molding Process;713
6.1.2.1;17.2.1Experiences of Polymer Chains in a Typical Injection Molding Machine;713
6.1.2.2;17.2.2Flow Behavior into Injection Molding Cavities;714
6.1.3;17.3Structure Development in Injection Molded Fast Crystallizing Polymers;718
6.1.3.1;17.3.1Polyethylene (PE);718
6.1.3.2;17.3.2Polypropylene (PP);719
6.1.3.3;17.3.3Polyoxymethylene (POM) and Other Fast Crystallizing Polymers;721
6.1.3.4;17.3.4Injection Molded PVDF and its Blends with PMMA;721
6.1.3.5;17.3.5Polyamides (PA);727
6.1.3.6;17.3.6Effect of Platelet Type Nanoparticles in Injection Molding;728
6.1.3.7;17.3.7Influence of Nano Clay on the Crystallization and Orientation – Summary;733
6.1.3.8;17.3.8Structure Development in Thermotropic Liquid Crystalline Polymers;733
6.1.4;17.4Structure Development in Injection Molded Slowly Crystallizing Polymers;734
6.1.4.1;17.4.1General Characteristics of Structure Development in Slow Crystallizing Polymers;735
6.1.4.2;17.4.2Poly(Phyenylene Sulfide) (PPS);735
6.1.4.3;17.4.3Effect of Molecular Weight;738
6.1.4.4;17.4.4Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) PEEK;741
6.1.4.5;17.4.5Syndiotactic Polystyrene (s-PS);744
6.1.4.6;17.4.6Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN);746
6.1.4.7;17.4.7Structure Characteristics of Injection Molded Slowly Crystallizing Polymers – Summary;747
6.1.5;17.5Simulation of the Structure Development During Injection Molding Process;747
6.1.6;17.6General Summary;750
6.1.7;Abbreviations;751
6.1.8;References;752
6.2;18Modeling Aspects of Post-Filling Steps in.Injection Molding;756
6.2.1;18.1Introduction;756
6.2.1.1;18.1.1The Post-Filling Stages;757
6.2.1.2;18.1.2State of the Art on Post-Filling Modeling;757
6.2.1.3;18.1.3Outline;760
6.2.2;18.2Understanding Pressure Evolution;761
6.2.2.1;18.2.1The Evolution of Pressure Curves During Injection Molding;761
6.2.2.1.1;18.2.1.1The Filling Stage;761
6.2.2.1.2;18.2.1.2The Packing-Holding Stage;762
6.2.2.1.3;18.2.1.3The Cooling Stage;765
6.2.2.2;18.2.2Pressure Curves Inside the Runners During Cooling;769
6.2.3;18.3A Suitable Modeling of the Process;769
6.2.3.1;18.3.1Modeling the Packing – Holding Stage;771
6.2.3.2;18.3.2Modeling the Cooling Stage;772
6.2.3.3;18.3.3Time-Depending Heat Transfer Coefficient;772
6.2.4;18.4Relevant Aspects of Rheological Behavior;776
6.2.4.1;18.4.1The Effect of Pressure on Viscosity;776
6.2.5;18.5Mold Deformation;778
6.2.5.1;18.5.1Effect of Mold Deformation on the Packing Stage;779
6.2.5.2;18.5.2Effect of Mold Deformation on the Cooling Stage;779
6.2.5.3;18.5.3Effect of Mold Deformation on Pressure Evolution and on Gate Sealing Time;780
6.2.6;18.6Molecular Orientation;781
6.2.6.1;18.6.1Experimental Evidences;782
6.2.6.2;18.6.2Modeling the Evolution of Orientation;785
6.2.6.2.1;18.6.2.1Leonov Model;786
6.2.6.2.2;18.6.2.2Non-Linear Maxwell Model;786
6.2.6.3;18.6.3Results of Modeling for Amorphous Materials;787
6.2.7;18.7Semi-Crystalline Polymers;791
6.2.7.1;18.7.1Effect of Crystallinity on Material Properties;792
6.2.7.1.1;18.7.1.1Effect of Crystallinity on Rheology;792
6.2.7.1.2;18.7.1.2Effect of Crystallinity on Specific Volume;794
6.2.8;18.8Morphology Evolution During the Post-Filling Stages;795
6.2.9;18.9Concluding Remarks;798
6.2.10;Nomenclature;799
6.2.11;References;801
6.3;19Volumetric and Anisotropic Shrinkage in.Injection Moldings of Thermoplastics;804
6.3.1;19.1Introduction;804
6.3.2;19.2Theoretical Analysis;805
6.3.2.1;19.2.1Volumetric Shrinkage;805
6.3.2.2;19.2.2Anisotropic Shrinkage;807
6.3.3;19.3Comparison Between Simulations and Experiments;814
6.3.3.1;19.3.1Volumetric Shrinkage;814
6.3.3.2;19.3.2Anisotropic Shrinkage;818
6.3.4;19.4Conclusions;829
6.3.5;19.5Acknowledgement;830
6.3.6;Nomenclature;830
6.3.7;References;832
6.4;20Three-Dimensional Simulation of Gas-Assisted and Co-Injection Molding Processes;834
6.4.1;20.1Introduction;834
6.4.2;20.2Background;836
6.4.3;20.3Mathematical Modeling and Formulations;837
6.4.3.1;20.3.1Conservation of Mass and Momentum;838
6.4.3.2;20.3.2Conservation of Energy;839
6.4.3.3;20.3.3Boundary and Initial Conditions;839
6.4.3.4;20.3.4The Compressibility Effects;840
6.4.4;20.4Front Capturing Methods for Co-Injection Molding;840
6.4.4.1;20.4.1The VOF and phase field methods;841
6.4.4.2;20.4.2The Level-Set Method;842
6.4.4.3;20.4.3Use of Level-Set in Co-Injection Molding;843
6.4.5;20.5Numerical Implementation;843
6.4.5.1;20.5.1A Finite Element Method;843
6.4.5.1.1;20.5.1.1Momentum-Continuity Equations;844
6.4.5.1.2;20.5.1.2Energy Equation;844
6.4.5.1.3;20.5.1.3Level-Set Equation;846
6.4.5.2;20.5.2Solution Algorithm;847
6.4.6;20.6Validation Cases and Applications;848
6.4.6.1;20.6.1Gas-Assisted Injection Molding;849
6.4.6.1.1;20.6.1.1Gas-Assisted Injection of a Plate with a Flow Channel;849
6.4.6.1.2;20.6.1.2Secondary Penetration in Gas-Assisted Injection;853
6.4.6.1.3;20.6.1.3Gas-Assisted Injection of a Thick Part;854
6.4.6.2;20.6.2Co-Injection Molding;855
6.4.6.2.1;20.6.2.1Co-Injection of a Side Gated Rectangular Plate;855
6.4.6.2.2;20.6.2.2Co-Injection of a Center-Gated Rectangular Plate;858
6.4.6.2.3;20.6.2.3Co-Injection of a C-Shaped Plate;862
6.4.6.3;20.6.3Simulation of Breakthrough in Co-Injection Molding;863
6.4.7;20.7Conclusions;870
6.4.8;List of Symbols and Abbreviations;871
6.4.9;References;873
6.5;21Co-Injection Molding of Polymers;876
6.5.1;21.1Introduction;876
6.5.2;21.2Technology;878
6.5.3;21.3Experimental Studies;885
6.5.3.1;21.3.1Effect of Process Parameters on Skin-Core Structure;885
6.5.3.2;21.3.2Breakthrough Phenomenon;892
6.5.3.3;21.3.3Interfacial Instability;899
6.5.3.4;21.3.4Mechanical Properties;900
6.5.3.5;21.3.5Microstructure;906
6.5.3.6;21.3.6Biomedical Applications;909
6.5.4;21.4Modeling of the Co-Injection Molding Process;909
6.5.4.1;21.4.1Simulation Approaches;909
6.5.4.2;21.4.2Comparison between Simulation and Experiment;923
6.5.5;21.5Conclusions;934
6.5.6;Nomenclature;934
6.5.7;References;937
7;Subject Index;942