Ohring / Kasprzak Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices

2. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-08-057552-0
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 758 Seiten

Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices is a well-established and well-regarded reference work offering unique, single-source coverage of most major topics related to the performance and failure of materials used in electronic devices and electronics packaging. With a focus on statistically predicting failure and product yields, this book can help the design engineer, manufacturing engineer, and quality control engineer all better understand the common mechanisms that lead to electronics materials failures, including dielectric breakdown, hot-electron effects, and radiation damage. This new edition adds cutting-edge knowledge gained both in research labs and on the manufacturing floor, with new sections on plastics and other new packaging materials, new testing procedures, and new coverage of MEMS devices. - Covers all major types of electronics materials degradation and their causes, including dielectric breakdown, hot-electron effects, electrostatic discharge, corrosion, and failure of contacts and solder joints - New updated sections on 'failure physics,' on mass transport-induced failure in copper and low-k dielectrics, and on reliability of lead-free/reduced-lead solder connections - New chapter on testing procedures, sample handling and sample selection, and experimental design - Coverage of new packaging materials, including plastics and composites

Dr. Milton Ohring, author of two previously acclaimed Academic Press books,The Materials Science of Thin Films (l992) and Engineering Materials Science (1995), has taught courses on reliability and failure in electronics at Bell Laboratories (AT&T and Lucent Technologies). From this perspective and the well-written tutorial style of the book, the reader will gain a deeper physical understanding of failure mechanisms in electronic materials and devices; acquire skills in the mathematical handling of reliability data; and better appreciate future technology trends and the reliability issues they raise.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Ohring, Milton

Kasprzak, Lucian

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front
Cover;1
2;FM-CTR-01;4
3;Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices;4
4;Copyright;5
5;DEDICATION;6
6;CONTENTS;8
7;PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION;18
8;PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION;20
9;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;24
10;Chapter 1 - An Overview of Electronic Devices and Their Reliability;26
10.1;1.1 ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS;26
10.2;1.2 RELIABILITY, OTHER ``…ILITIES,'' AND DEFINITIONS;40
10.3;1.3 FAILURE PHYSICS;44
10.4;1.4 SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVE;59
10.5;EXERCISES;60
10.6;REFERENCES;63
11;Chapter 2 - Electronic Devices: How They Operate and Are Fabricated;64
11.1;2.1 INTRODUCTION;64
11.2;2.2 ELECTRONIC MATERIALS;65
11.3;2.3 DIODES;80
11.4;2.4 BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS;86
11.5;2.5 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS;90
11.6;2.6 MEMORIES;100
11.7;2.7 GAAS DEVICES;106
11.8;2.8 ELECTRO-OPTICAL DEVICES;111
11.9;2.9 PROCESSING-THE CHIP LEVEL;119
11.10;2.10 MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS;130
11.11;EXERCISES;130
11.12;REFERENCES;133
12;Chapter 3 - Defects, Contaminants, and Yield;136
12.1;3.1 SCOPE;136
12.2;3.2 DEFECTS IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS;137
12.3;3.3 PROCESSING DEFECTS;154
12.4;3.4 CONTAMINATION;170
12.5;3.5 YIELD;187
12.6;EXERCISES;199
12.7;REFERENCES;203
13;Chapter 4 - The Mathematics of Failure and Reliability;206
13.1;4.1 INTRODUCTION;206
13.2;4.2 STATISTICS AND DEFINITIONS;208
13.3;4.3 ALL ABOUT EXPONENTIAL, LOGNORMAL, AND WEIBULL DISTRIBUTIONS;219
13.4;4.4 SYSTEM RELIABILITY;237
13.5;4.5 ON THE PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FAILURE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS;243
13.6;4.6 PREDICTION CONFIDENCE AND ASSESSING RISK;257
13.7;4.7 A SKEPTICAL AND IRREVERENT SUMMARY;265
13.8;STATISTICS AND IGNORANCE;266
13.9;SUPERSTITION, WITCHCRAFT, PREDICTION;266
13.10;STATISTICS VERSUS PHYSICS;266
13.11;WHERE DO I BEGIN?;266
13.12;RELIABILITY PREDICTION AND MIL-HDBK-217;266
13.13;4.8 EPILOGUE-FINAL COMMENT;267
13.14;EXERCISES;268
13.15;REFERENCES;272
14;Chapter 5 - Mass Transport-Induced Failure;274
14.1;5.1 INTRODUCTION;274
14.2;5.2 DIFFUSION AND ATOM MOVEMENTS IN SOLIDS;275
14.3;5.3 BINARY DIFFUSION AND COMPOUND FORMATION;279
14.4;5.4 REACTIONS AT METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR CONTACTS;285
14.5;5.5 EM PHYSICS AND DAMAGE MODELS;295
14.6;5.6 EM IN PRACTICE;310
14.7;5.7 STRESS VOIDING;321
14.8;5.8 MULTILEVEL COPPER METALLURGY-EM AND SV;330
14.9;5.9 FAILURE OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS;341
14.10;EXERCISES;343
14.11;REFERENCES;348
15;Chapter 6 - Electronic Charge-Induced Damage;352
15.1;6.1 INTRODUCTION;352
15.2;6.2 ASPECTS OF CONDUCTION IN INSULATORS;353
15.3;6.3 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN;360
15.4;6.4 HOT-CARRIER EFFECTS;380
15.5;6.5 ELECTRICAL OVERSTRESS AND ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE;389
15.6;6.6 BIAS TEMPERATURE EFFECTS;404
15.7;EXERCISES;405
15.8;REFERENCES;408
16;Chapter 7 - Environmental Damage to Electronic Products;412
16.1;7.1 INTRODUCTION;412
16.2;7.2 ATMOSPHERIC CONTAMINATION AND MOISTURE;413
16.3;7.3 CORROSION OF METALS;419
16.4;7.4 CORROSION IN ELECTRONICS;427
16.5;7.5 METAL MIGRATION;439
16.6;7.6 RADIATION DAMAGE TO ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES;445
16.7;EXERCISES;462
16.8;REFERENCES;464
17;Chapter 8 - Packaging Materials, Processes, and Stresses;468
17.1;8.1 INTRODUCTION;468
17.2;8.2 IC CHIP PACKAGING PROCESSES AND EFFECTS;472
17.3;8.3 SOLDERS AND THEIR REACTIONS;492
17.4;8.4 SECOND-LEVEL PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIES;503
17.5;8.5 THERMAL STRESSES IN PACKAGE STRUCTURES;510
17.6;EXERCISES;523
17.7;REFERENCES;526
18;Chapter 9 - Degradation of Contacts and Package Interconnections;530
18.1;9.1 INTRODUCTION;530
18.2;9.2 THE NATURE OF CONTACTS;531
18.3;9.3 DEGRADATION OF CONTACTS AND CONNECTORS;537
18.4;9.4 CREEP AND FATIGUE OF SOLDER;547
18.5;9.5 RELIABILITY AND FAILURE OF SOLDER JOINTS;561
18.6;9.6 DYNAMIC LOADING EFFECTS IN ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT;579
18.7;EXERCISES;584
18.8;REFERENCES;588
19;Chapter 10 - Degradation and Failure of Electro-Optical Materials and Devices;590
19.1;10.1 INTRODUCTION;590
19.2;10.2 FAILURE AND RELIABILITY OF LASERS AND LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES;591
19.3;10.3 THERMAL DEGRADATION OF LASERS AND OPTICAL COMPONENTS;608
19.4;10.4 RELIABILITY OF OPTICAL FIBERS;617
19.5;EXERCISES;631
19.6;REFERENCES;634
20;Chapter 11 - Characterization and Failure Analysis of Materials and Devices;636
20.1;11.1 OVERVIEW OF TESTING AND FAILURE ANALYSIS;636
20.2;11.2 NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION AND DECAPSULATION;641
20.3;11.3 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION;652
20.4;11.4 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION;662
20.5;11.5 EXAMINING DEVICES UNDER ELECTRICAL STRESS;671
20.6;EXERCISES;684
20.7;REFERENCES;687
21;Chapter 12 - Future Directions and Reliability Issues;690
21.1;12.1 INTRODUCTION;690
21.2;12.2 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TECHNOLOGY TRENDS;691
21.3;12.3 SCALING;707
21.4;12.4 FUNDAMENTAL LIMITS;711
21.5;12.5 IMPROVING RELIABILITY;715
21.6;EXERCISES;722
21.7;REFERENCES;724
22;APPENDIX;726
22.1;VALUES OF SELECTED PHYSICAL CONSTANTS;726
23;ACRONYMS;728
24;INDEX;730

Leseproben

Chapter 1

An Overview of Electronic Devices and Their Reliability

Abstract

Never in human existence have scientific and technological advances transformed our lives more profoundly, and in so short a time, as during what may be broadly termed the Age of Electricity and Electronics. From the telegraph in 1837 (which was in a sense digital, although clearly electromechanical) to the telephone and teletype, television and the personal computer, the cell phone and the digital camera, and the World Wide Web, the progress has been truly breathtaking. All these technologies have been focused on communicating information at ever increasing speeds. In contrast to the millennia-long metal ages of antiquity, this age is only little more than a century old. Instead of showing signs of abatement, there is every evidence that its pace of progress is accelerating. In both a practical and theoretical sense, a case can be made for dating the origin of this age to the eighth decade of the nineteenth century. The legacy of tinkering with voltaic cells, electromagnets, and heating elements culminated in the inventions of the telephone in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, and the incandescent light bulb 3years later by Thomas Alva Edison. Despite the fact that James Clerk Maxwell published his monumental work Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873, the inventors probably did not know of its existence. With little in the way of “science” to guide them, innovation came from wonderfully creative and persistent individuals who incrementally improved devices to the point of useful and reliable function. This was the case with the telephone and incandescent lamp, perhaps the two products that had the greatest influence in launching the widespread use of electricity. After darkness was illuminated and communication over distance demonstrated, the pressing need for electric generators and systems to distribute electricity was apparent. Once this infrastructure was in place, other inventions and products capitalizing on electromagnetic-mechanical phenomena quickly followed. Today, texting from a cell phone has replaced the telegraph for the ultimate person-to-person real-time digital conversation. Literally, the telegraph of 1837 has become texting in 2007. Both use letters to interact with someone on the other end (of the wire, so to speak). The rate is about the same, possibly a letter or so a second, when you consider composition for texting, which is real time versus predefined on a form for the telegraph. Both the telegraph (1837) and texting (2007) have roughly the same data entry rate of about two letters a second.

Keywords

Electronic devices; Integrated circuits; Reliability; Solid-state devices

1.1. Electronic Products

1.1.1. Historical Perspective

Never in human existence have scientific and technological advances transformed our lives more profoundly, and in so short a time, as during what may be broadly termed the Age of Electricity and Electronics.1 From the telegraph in 1837 (which was in a sense digital, although clearly electromechanical) to the telephone and teletype, television and the personal computer, the cell phone and the digital camera, and the World Wide Web (WWW), the progress has been truly breathtaking. All these technologies have been focused on communicating information at ever increasing speeds. In contrast to the millennia-long metal ages of antiquity, this age is only little more than a century old. Instead of showing signs of abatement, there is every evidence that its pace of progress is accelerating. In both a practical and theoretical sense, a case can be made for dating the origin of this age to the eighth decade of the nineteenth century [1]. The legacy of tinkering with voltaic cells, electromagnets, and heating elements culminated in the inventions of the telephone in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, and the incandescent light bulb 3years later by Thomas Alva Edison. Despite the fact that James Clerk Maxwell published his monumental work Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873, the inventors probably did not know of its existence. With little in the way of “science” to guide them, innovation came from wonderfully creative and persistent individuals who incrementally improved devices to the point of useful and reliable function. This was the case with the telephone and incandescent lamp, perhaps the two products that had the greatest influence in launching the widespread use of electricity. After darkness was illuminated and communication over distance demonstrated, the pressing need for electric generators and systems to distribute electricity was apparent. Once this infrastructure was in place, other inventions and products capitalizing on electromagnetic-mechanical phenomena quickly followed. Today, texting from a cell phone has replaced the telegraph for the ultimate person-to-person real-time digital conversation. Literally, the telegraph of 1837 has become texting in 2007. Both use letters to interact with someone on the other end (of the wire, so to speak). The rate is about the same, possibly a letter or so a second, when you consider composition for texting, which is real time versus predefined on a form for the telegraph. Both the telegraph (1837) and texting (2007) have roughly the same data entry rate of about two letters a second.

Irrespective of the particular invention, however, materials played a critical role. At first, conducting metals and insulating nonmetals were the only materials required. Although a reasonable number of metals and insulators were potentially available, few were produced in quantity or had the requisite properties. The incandescent lamp is a case in point [2,3]. In the 40years prior to 1879, some 20 inventors tried assorted filaments (e.g., carbon, platinum, iridium) in various atmospheres (e.g., vacuum, air, nitrogen, hydrocarbon). Frustrating trials with carbon spirals and filaments composed of carbonized fiber, tar, lampblack, paper, fish line, cotton, and assorted woods paved the way to Edison's crowning achievement. His patent revealed that the filament that worked was carbonized cardboard bent in the shape of a horseshoe. Despite the fact that an industry based on incandescent lamps grew rapidly, the filaments were brittle and hard to handle. The glass envelopes darkened rapidly with time, and the bulbs were short lived. Salvation occurred around 1910 when the Coolidge process [4] for making fine tungsten filament wire was developed. Well beyond a century after the original Edison patent, filaments continue to be improved and lamp life extended and today we are increasingly using light emitting diodes (LEDs) as the next generation of efficient illumination.

With the ability to generate electromagnetic waves around the turn of the century, the era of vacuum electronics was born. The invention of vacuum tubes enabled electric waves to be generated, transmitted, detected, and amplified, making wireless communication possible. In particular, the three-electrode vacuum tube invented by Lee de Forest in 1906 became the foundation of electronics for the first half of the twentieth century [5]. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, electronics has been transformed both by the transistor, which was invented in 1947, and integrated circuits (ICs), which appeared a decade later. The juxtaposition of these milestone devices in Figure 1.1 demonstrates how far we have come in so short a time.

Figure 1.1 Edison's horseshoe filament lamp sketched by patent draftsman Samuel D. Mott serves as the backdrop to the vacuum tube, discrete transistor, and integrated circuit. Courtesy of FSI International, Inc.

A pattern can be discerned in the development of not only electrical devices and equipment, but also all types of products. First, the genius of invention envisions a practical use for a particular physical phenomenon. The design and analysis of the components and devices are then executed, and finally, the materials and manufacturing processes are selected. Usage invariably exposes defects in design and manufacturing, causing failure or the wearing out of the product. Subsequent iterations of design or materials processing improve the reliability or probability of operating the product for a given time period under specified conditions without failure. In a sense, new reliability issues replace old ones, but incremental progress is made. Ultimately, new technologies replace obsolete ones, and the above sequence of events repeats once again.

Well into the Age of Electricity and Electronics, we still use vastly improved versions of some of those early inventions. As you change your next light bulb, however, you will realize that reliability concerns are still an issue. But solid-state electronic products also fail in service, and often with far greater consequences than a burned-out light bulb. While other books are concerned with the theory of phenomena and the practice of designing useful electrical and electronic products based on them, this book focuses on the largely unheralded activities that insure they possess adequate reliability during use.

1.1.2. Solid-State Devices

The scientific flowering of solid-state device electronics has been due to the synergism between the quantum theory of matter and classical electromagnetic theory. As a result, our scientific understanding of the behavior of electronic, magnetic, and optical materials has dramatically increased. In ways that continue undiminished to the present day,...