Buch, Englisch, 580 Seiten, Hardback
Reihe: Press Monographs
Here is Why
Buch, Englisch, 580 Seiten, Hardback
Reihe: Press Monographs
ISBN: 978-1-5106-3995-9
Verlag: SPIE Press
Autoren/Hrsg.
Weitere Infos & Material
- Preface
- 1 Introduction
- 1.1 The Role of Lithography in Integrated Circuit Fabrication
- 1.2 The Goal of Lithography
- 1.3 The Metrics of Lithography
- 1.4 Introduction to the Contents of this Book
- 2 Proximity Printing
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Proximity Imaging
- 2.3 Region of Validity for Various Approximations of Diffraction
- 2.4 Proximity Images
- 2.5 Exposure-Gap (E-G) Diagram
- 2.6 Conclusion
- References
- 3 Exposure Systems
- 3.1 Projection Printing and a Comparison to Proximity Printing
- 3.2 Full-Wafer Field
- 3.3 Step and Repeat
- 3.4 Step and Scan
- 3.5 Reduction and 1X Systems
- 3.6 1X Mask Fabricated with a Reduction System
- 3.7 Summary
- References
- 4 Image Formation
- 4.1 The Aerial Image
- 4.1.1 Effects of a spherical wavefront and deviations from it
- 4.1.2 Spherical wavefront
- 4.1.3 The effect of a finite numerical aperture on the spherical wavefront
- 4.1.4 Deviation from a spherical wavefront
- 4.1.5 Imaging from a mask pattern
- 4.1.6 Spatial frequencies
- 4.1.7 Imaging results
- 4.2 Reflected and Refracted Images
- 4.2.1 Methods to evaluate the reflected and refracted image from a mask
- 4.2.2 Impact of multiple reflections on DOF
- 4.3 The Latent Image
- 4.4 Pupil Filters
- 4.4.1 The A, B, C Coefficients
- 4.4.2 The lumped parameters
- 4.4.3 ? and ?
- 4.5 From Aerial Image to Resist Image
- 4.6 The Transferred Image
- 4.6.1 Isotropic etching
- 4.6.2 Anisotropic etching
- 4.6.3 Lift off
- 4.6.4 Ion implantation
- 4.6.5 Electroplating
- References
- 5 The Metrics of Lithography: Exposure-Defocus (E-D) Tools
- 5.1 The Resolution and DOF Scaling Equations
- 5.2 Determination of k1 and k3 Based on Microscopy
- 5.3 Determination of k1, k2, and k3 Based on Lithography
- 5.3.1 E-D branches, trees, and regions
- 5.3.2 E-D window, DOF, and exposure latitude
- 5.3.3 Determination of k1, k2, and k3 using E-D windows
- 5.4 k1, k2, and k3 as Normalized Lateral and Longitudinal Units of Dimension
- 5.5 The E-D Tools
- 5.5.1 Construction of E-D trees
- 5.5.2 The importance of using log scale in the exposure axis
- 5.5.3 Elliptical E-D window
- 5.5.4 CD-centered E-D windows versus full-CD-range E-D windows
- 5.5.5 E-D windows and CD control
- 5.5.6 Application of E-D tools
- References
- 6 Hardware Components in Optical Lithography
- 6.1 Light Sources
- 6.1.1 Mercury arc lamps
- 6.1.2 Excimer lasers
- 6.2 Illuminator
- 6.2.1 Köhler illumination system
- 6.2.2 Off-axis illumination
- 6.2.3 Arbitrary illumination
- 6.3 Masks
- 6.3.1 Mask substrate and absorber
- 6.3.2 Pellicles
- 6.3.3 Critical parameters for masks
- 6.3.4 Phase-shifting masks
- 6.4 Imaging Lens
- 6.4.1 Typical lens parameters
- 6.4.2 Lens configurations
- 6.4.3 Lens aberrations
- 6.4.4 Lens fabrication
- 6.4.5 Lens maintenance
- 6.5 Photoresists
- 6.5.1 Classifications
- 6.5.2 Light interactions with a photoresist
- 6.5.3 Developed resist images
- 6.5.4 Antireflection coating (ARC) (by B.J. Lin and S.S. Yu)
- 6.6 Wafer
- 6.7 Wafer Stage
- 6.8 Alignment System
- 6.8.1 Off-axis alignment and through-the-lens alignment
- 6.8.2 Field-by-field, global, and enhanced global alignment
- 6.8.3 Bright-field and dark-field alignments
- 6.9 Conclusion
- References
- 7 Processing and Optimization
- 7.1 Optimization of the Exposure Tool
- 7.1.1 Optimization of the NA
- 7.1.2 Optimization of illumination
- 7.1.3 Exposure and focus
- 7.1.4 DOF budget
- 7.1.5 Exposure tool throughput management
- 7.2 Resist Processing
- 7.2.1 Resist coating
- 7.2.2 Resist baking
- 7.2.3 Resist developing
- 7.2.4 Aspect ratio of the resist image
- 7.2.5 Environmental contamination
- 7.3 k1 reduction
- 7.3.1 Phase-shifting masks
- 7.3.2 Off-axis illumination
- 7.3.3 Conceptual illustration
- 7.3.4 Scattering bars
- 7.3.5 Optical proximity correction
- 7.4 Polarized Illumination
- 7.5 Multiple Patterning
- 7.5.1 Principle of the multiple-patterning technique (MPT)
- 7.5.2 MPT processes
- 7.5.3 MPT layouts
- 7.5.4 G-rule for the double-patterning technique (DPT)
- 7.5.5 Pack-unpack
- 7.5.6 Resolution-doubling theory illustrated
- 7.5.7 Overlay consideration of MPT
- 7.5.8 Overcoming throughput penalty with double imaging
- 7.6 CD Uniformity (by S.S. Yu)
- 7.6.1 CD nonuniformity (CDNU) analysis
- 7.6.2 CDU improvement
- 7.7 Alignment and Overlay
- 7.7.1 Alignment and overlay marks
- 7.7.2 Using measured data for alignment
- 7.7.3 Evaluation of interfield and intrafield overlay error components
- References
- 8 Immersion Lithography
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Overview of Immersion Lithography
- 8.3 Resolution and DOF
- 8.3.1 Wavelength reduction and spatial frequencies
- 8.3.2 Resolution-scaling and DOF-scaling equations
- 8.3.3 Improving resolution and DOF with an immersion system
- 8.3.4 NA in immersion systems
- 8.4 DOF in Multilayered Media
- 8.4.1 Transmission and reflection in multilayered media
- 8.4.2 Effects of wafer defocus movements
- 8.4.3 Diffraction DOF
- 8.4.4 Required DOF
- 8.4.5 Available DOF
- 8.4.6 The preferred refractive index in the coupling medium
- 8.4.7 Tradeoff between resolution and DOFdiffrac
- 8.5 Polarization in Optical Imaging
- 8.5.1 Imaging with different polarizations
- 8.5.2 Stray light
- 8.6 Immersion Systems and Components
- 8.6.1 Configuration of an immersion system
- 8.6.2 The immersion medium
- 8.6.3 The immersion lens
- 8.6.4 Bubbles in the immersion medium
- 8.6.5 The mask
- 8.6.6 Subwavelength 3D masks
- 8.6.7 The photoresist
- 8.7 The Impact of Immersion Lithography on Technology
- 8.7.1 Simulation of immersion lithography
- 8.7.2 Poly layer
- 8.7.3 Contact layer
- 8.7.4 Metal layer
- 8.7.5 Recommendations for the three technology nodes
- 8.8 Practicing Immersion Lithography
- 8.8.1 Printing results
- 8.8.2 Defect reduction
- 8.8.3 Monitoring the immersion hood and special routing
- 8.8.4 Other defect-reduction schemes
- 8.8.5 Results
- 8.9 Extension of Immersion Lithography
- 8.9.1 High-refractive-index materials
- 8.9.2 Solid-immersion masks
- 8.9.3 Polarized illumination
- 8.9.4 Multiple patterning
- 8.10 Conclusion
- References
- 9 EUV Lithography
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 EUV Source
- 9.2.1 Source power requirement
- 9.2.2 The adopted LPP source
- 9.2.3 Wall-power requirement of EUV systems
- 9.3 EUV Masks
- 9.3.1 Configuration of EUV masks
- 9.3.2 Effects of oblique incidence on mask
- 9.3.3 EUV mask fabrication
- 9.3.4 EUV pellicles
- 9.4 Resolution-Enhancement Techniques for EUVL
- 9.4.1 EUV flexible illumination
- 9.4.2 EUV proximity correction
- 9.4.3 EUV multiple patterning
- 9.4.4 EUV phase-shifting masks
- 9.5 EUV Projection Optics
- 9.6 EUV Resists
- 9.6.1 Mechanism of EUV resist exposure
- 9.6.2 CAR EUV resists
- 9.6.3 Non-CAR EUV resists
- 9.7 Extendibility of EUVL
- 9.7.1 Resist sensitivity, throughput, and power at each technology node
- 9.7.2 Increasing NA
- 9.8 Summary of EUVL
- 9.9 Outlook of Lithography
- References
- Appendix: Methods to Evaluate the Region of Validity Based on Lithography Applications
- by Yen Hui Hsieh, Mung Xiang Hsieh, and Burn J. Lin
- A.1 Motivation
- A.2 Similarity of the Approximation Methods According to the Pearson Correlation Coefficient
- A.3 Critical Dimension
- A.4 Log Slope–CD Control
- A.5 Polychromatic Illumination
- A.6 Summary and Conclusion
- References
- Index