Pirrone / Mason Mercury Fate and Transport in the Global Atmosphere

Emissions, Measurements and Models
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-387-93958-2
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 637 Seiten

Mercury, primarily because of its existence and bioaccumulation as methylmercury in aquatic organisms, is a concern for the health of higher trophic level organisms, or to their consumers. This is the major factor driving current research in mercury globally and in environmental regulation, and is the driver for the current UNEP Global Partnership for Mercury Transport and Fate Research (UNEP F&T) initiative. The overall focus of the UNEP F&T report is to assess the relative importance of different processes/mechanisms affecting the transfer of mercury (Hg) from emission sources to aquatic and terrestrial receptors and provide possible source-receptor relationships. This transfer occurs through atmospheric transport, chemical transformations and subsequent deposition, and involves the intermittent recycling between reservoirs that occurs prior to ultimate removal of Hg from the atmosphere. Understanding the sources, the global Hg transport and fate, and the impact of human activity on the biosphere, requires improved knowledge of Hg movement and transformation in the atmosphere. An improved understanding of Hg emission sources, fate and transport is important if there is to be a focused and concerted effort to set priorities and goals for Hg emission management and reduction at the national, regional and global levels; and to develop and implement such policies and strategies. To achieve this, a series of coordinated scientific endeavors focused on the estimation of sources, measurement and validation of concentrations and processes, and modeling, coupled with interpretation of the results within a policy framework, is likely to be required.

Nicola Pirrone is Director of the Institute for Atmospheric Pollution of the Italian National Research Council (CNR-IIA) and Adjunct Professor at the Department of Environmental and Health Sciences of the University of Michigan. He is Chair of the UNEP Global Partnership for Mercury Air Transport and Fate Research, Chair of the WG on Global Atmospheric Mercury Models Intercomparison within the Task Force on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollutants (TF HTAP) of the UN-ECE-LRTAP convention and Chair of the CEN-TC264 WG that is preparing the European Standard Methods for monitoring mercury concentrations in ambient air and precipitations. He has been Chair of the European WG that prepared the 'Air Quality Position Paper on Mercury' that is one of the scientific background documents of the Forth Air Quality Daughter Directive of the European Union. He has published over 100 peer-reviewed articles on different topics associated to atmospheric transport, chemistry and policy relevant issues related to major at-mospheric pollutants. Robert Mason is a Professor at the University of Connecticut with a joint appointment in the Departments of Marine Sciences and Chemistry. His research focus is the cycling of mercury in the biosphere with emphasis on the atmosphere and on air-sea exchange and redox reactions in the atmospheric boundary layer and the surface ocean. In addition, his research has a focus on mercury methylation in coastal ecosystems and other environments. Mason has an active research group with currently 4 PhD students and a post-doc. He is the author/coauthor of about 100 papers on mercury and is actively involved in a number of national and international mercury initiatives. Mason obtained his undergraduate and Master's degree in South Africa and his PhD at the University of Connecticut in 1991. He was a professor at the University of Maryland before returning to the University of Connecticut in 2005.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Mason, Robert

Pirrone, Nicola

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Acknowledgments;7
3;Contents;8
4;About the Editors;11
5;Contributing Authors;12
6;External reviewers;15
7;Sources of Mercury Released to the Global Atmosphere;16
7.1;Global Mercury Emissions to the Atmosphere from Natural and Anthropogenic Sources;17
7.1.1;1.1 Introduction;17
7.1.2;1.2 Mercury Emissions from Natural Sources;19
7.1.3;1.3 Mercury Emissions from Anthropogenic Sources;24
7.1.4;1.4 Global Assessment;51
7.1.5;1.5 Further Research;53
7.1.6;References;56
7.2;Mercury Emissions from Coal Combustion in China;64
7.2.1;2.1 Introduction;64
7.2.2;2.2 Results and Discussion;65
7.2.3;2.3 Mercury Released to the Atmosphere;68
7.2.4;2.4 Emission Trends in China;70
7.2.5;2.5 Future Mercury Emissions from Coal Combustion;74
7.2.6;2.6 Future Research and Policy Implications;76
7.2.7;References;77
7.3;Mercury Emissions from Industrial Sources in China;79
7.3.1;3.1 Introduction;79
7.3.2;3.2 Emission Factors from Different Industrial Sources in China;81
7.3.3;3.3 Speciation of Mercury Compounds from Different Industrial Sources in China;83
7.3.4;3.4 Emissions from Different Industrial Sources in China in 1999;83
7.3.5;3.5 Mercury Emission Trends from 1995 to 2003;85
7.3.6;3.6 Uncertainties;88
7.3.7;3.7 Future Research and Policy Implications;89
7.3.8;References;89
7.4;Mercury Emissions from Industrial Sources in India and its Effects in the Environment;92
7.4.1;4.1 Introduction;93
7.4.2;4.2 Results;97
7.4.3;4.3 Iron and Steel industry;102
7.4.4;4.4 Chlor-alkali Industry in India;104
7.4.5;4.5 Cement Industry;107
7.4.6;4.6 Wastes Disposal;108
7.4.7;4.7 Biomass Burning;111
7.4.8;4.8 Miscellaneous;112
7.4.9;4.9 Mercury in the Indian Environment and the Cycling in the Bio- geosphere;114
7.4.10;4.10 Discussion;116
7.4.11;4.11 Future Directions;118
7.4.12;References;121
7.5;Mercury Emissions from Point Sources in South Africa;124
7.5.1;5.1 Introduction;124
7.5.2;5.2 Current Understanding of Mercury Emissions and Levels in South Africa;125
7.5.3;5.3 Monitoring Hg Emissions in South Africa;137
7.5.4;5.4 Gaps in Our Current Understanding;138
7.5.5;5.5 Research Needs;138
7.5.6;References;139
7.6;World Emissions of Mercury from Artisanal and Small Scale Gold Mining;142
7.6.1;6.1 Introduction;142
7.6.2;6.2 Why Mercury is Used;143
7.6.3;6.3 Where ASGM is Occurring;149
7.6.4;6.4 Amount of mercury used in ASGM;149
7.6.5;Appendix 1;154
7.6.6;6.5 Reported Trade in Mercury and Gold;162
7.6.7;6.6 Knowledge Gaps about Mercury in ASGM;169
7.6.8;6.7 Reducing Mercury use in ASGM;174
7.6.9;6.8 Conclusions;177
7.6.10;References;178
7.7;Mercury Emissions from Natural Processes and their Importance in the Global Mercury Cycle;184
7.7.1;7.1 Introduction;184
7.7.2;7.2 Estimates of Oceanic Evasion;189
7.7.3;7.2 Estimates of Net Terrestrial Evasion;192
7.7.4;References;198
7.8;Mercury Emissions from Global Biomass Burning: Spatial and Temporal Distribution;203
7.8.1;8.1 Introduction;203
7.8.2;8.2 Results and Discussion;214
7.8.3;8.3 Future Work;225
7.8.4;8.4 Policy Implications;226
7.8.5;References;226
8;Spatial Coverage and Temporal Trends of Mercury Measurements;231
8.1;Spatial Coverage and Temporal Trends of Land- based Atmospheric Mercury Measurements in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres;232
8.1.1;9.1 Introduction;232
8.1.2;9.2 Measurements of Air Concentrations in North America;235
8.1.3;9.3 Measurements of Air Concentrations in South America;270
8.1.4;9.4 Measurements of Air Concentrations in Europe;273
8.1.5;9.5 Measurements of Air Concentrations in Asia;287
8.1.6;9.6 Measurements of Air Concentrations in Africa;290
8.1.7;9.7 Summary and Conclusion;291
8.1.8;References;293
8.2;Spatial Coverage and Temporal Trends of Atmospheric Mercury Measurements in Polar Regions;301
8.2.1;10.1 Introduction;301
8.2.2;10.2 Results and Discussion;304
8.2.3;10.3 Gaps of Knowledge, Future Research and Policy Implications;322
8.2.4;References;324
8.3;Spatial Coverage and Temporal Trends of Over- Water, Air- Surface Exchange, Surface and Deep Sea Water Mercury Measurements;330
8.3.1;11.1 Introduction;330
8.3.2;11.2 Over-Water Mercury Measurements;333
8.3.3;11.3 Air-Water Mercury Exchange;346
8.3.4;11.4 Surface and Deep Sea Water Mercury Measurements;368
8.3.5;References;380
8.4;Monitoring and Modeling the Fate of Mercury Species in Japan;388
8.4.1;12.1 Introduction;388
8.4.2;12.2 Monitoring Project for Ambient Atmospheric Mercury and Other Heavy Metals in a Remote Background Location;389
8.4.3;12.3 Fate Analysis of Mercury Species for the Monitoring Data Using a Multimedia Environmental Fate Model;394
8.4.4;12.4 Future Directions;397
8.4.5;References;397
8.5;The Need for a Coordinated Global Mercury Monitoring Network for Global and Regional Models Validations;398
8.5.1;13.1 Introduction;398
8.5.2;13.2 Existing Global Monitoring Programs;401
8.5.3;13.3 Measurements and Model Development;404
8.5.4;13.4 Establishment of the Coordinated Global Mercury Monitoring Network ( CGMMN);413
8.5.5;13.5 Coordinated Monitoring and Modelling;416
8.5.6;References;426
9;Understanding Atmospheric Mercury on Hemispheric and Global Scales;432
9.1;Our Current Understanding of Major Chemical and Physical Processes Affecting Mercury Dynamics in the Atmosphere and At the Air- Water/ Terrestrial Interfaces;433
9.1.1;14.1 Introduction;433
9.1.2;14.2 Homogeneous Gas Phase Transformation;434
9.1.3;14.3 Specific Reaction Systems;439
9.1.4;14.4 Gas Phase Oxidation: Issues and Uncertainties;452
9.1.5;14.5 Mercury Chemistry in the Atmospheric Aqueous Phase;452
9.1.6;14.6 The Uncertainty due to Hg Chemistry in Atmospheric Models;457
9.1.7;14.7 Deposition Processes;457
9.1.8;References;459
9.2;Mercury Chemical Transformation in the Gas, Aqueous and Heterogeneous Phases: State- of- the- art Science and Uncertainties;464
9.2.1;15.1 Introduction;464
9.2.2;15.2 Atmospheric Oxidation and Reductions;467
9.2.3;15.3 Theoretical Evaluation of Kinetic Data;485
9.2.4;15.4 Reactions at Interfaces: Heterogeneous Reactions;489
9.2.5;15.5 Open Questions and Future Directions;496
9.2.6;References;498
9.3;Importance of a Global Scale Approach to using Regional Models in the Assessment of Source- Receptor Relationships for Mercury;507
9.3.1;16.1 Introduction;507
9.3.2;16.2 Previous Testing and Application;509
9.3.3;16.3 Testing Model Sensitivities to Intercontinental Transport;514
9.3.4;16.4 Future Research and Policy Implications;518
9.3.5;References;520
9.4;Global Mercury Modelling at Environment Canada;522
9.4.1;17.1 Introduction;522
9.4.2;17.2 Model Description;523
9.4.3;17.3 Results and Discussion;525
9.4.4;17.4 Uncertainties and Future Research;533
9.4.5;References;534
9.5;The Geos-Chem Model;536
9.5.1;18.1 Introduction;536
9.5.2;18.2 Model Description;537
9.5.3;18.3 Results/Discussion;539
9.5.4;18.4 Uncertainties in Model Results and Future Research;546
9.5.5;References;547
9.6;The ECHMERIT Model;549
9.6.1;19.1 Introduction;549
9.6.2;19.2 Model Description;551
9.6.3;19.3 Results/Discussion;554
9.6.4;19.4 Future Research and Policy Implications;570
9.6.5;References;570
9.7;The EMEP/MSC-E Mercury Modeling System;572
9.7.1;20.1 Introduction;572
9.7.2;20.2 Model Description;573
9.7.3;20.3 Results and Discussion;577
9.7.4;20.4 Uncertainty and Future Research;585
9.7.5;References;585
9.8;The AER/EPRI Global Chemical Transport Model for Mercury ( CTM- HG);589
9.8.1;21.1 Description of the CTM-Hg;589
9.8.2;21.2 Emission Inventory;590
9.8.3;21.3 Atmospheric Chemistry of Mercury;591
9.8.4;21.4 Model Performance Evaluation;593
9.8.5;21.5 Source/Receptor Relationships;595
9.8.6;21.6 Conclusion;599
9.8.7;References;600
9.9;List of Figures;603
9.10;List of Tables;613
9.11;Acronyms;620
9.12;Index;626