Raviv / Lieth Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice

1. Auflage 2007
ISBN: 978-0-08-055642-0
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 608 Seiten

Plant production in hydroponics and soilless culture is rapidly expanding throughout the world, raising a great interest in the scientific community. For the first time in an authoritative reference book, authors cover both theoretical and practical aspects of hydroponics (growing plants without the use of soil). This reference book covers the state-of-the-art in this area, while offering a clear view of supplying plants with nutrients other than soil. Soilless Culture provides the reader with an understanding of the properties of the various soiless media and how these properties affect plant performance in relation to basic horticultural operations, such as irrigation and fertilization. This book is ideal for agronomists, horticulturalists, greenhouse and nursery managers, extension specialists, and people involved with the production of plants.
* Comprehensive discussion of hydroponic systems, irrigation, and control measures allows readers to achieve optimal performance
* State-of-the-art book on all theoretical aspects of hydroponics and soilless culture including a thorough description of the root system, its functions and limitation posed by restricted root volume
* Critical and updated reviews of current analytical methods and how to translate their results to irrigation and fertilization practices
* Definitive chapters on recycled, no-discharge systems including salinity and nutrition management and pathogen eradication
* Up-to-date description of all important types of growing media

Autoren/Hrsg.

Raviv, Michael

Lieth, J. Heinrich

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Cover;1
2;Table of Contents;6
3;List of Contributors;18
4;Preface;20
5;Chapter 1 Significance of Soilless Culture in Agriculture;22
5.1;1.1 Historical Facets of Soilless Production;22
5.2;1.2 Hydroponics;27
5.3;1.3 Soilless Production Agriculture;27
5.4;References;31
6;Chapter 2 Functions of the Root System;34
6.1;2.1 The Functions of the Root System;34
6.2;2.2 Depth of Root Penetration;38
6.3;2.3 Water Uptake;39
6.4;2.4 Response of Root Growth to Local Nutrient Concentrations;43
6.4.1;2.4.1 Nutrient Uptake;43
6.4.2;2.4.2 Root Elongation and P Uptake;43
6.4.3;2.4.3 Influence of N Form and Concentration;46
6.5;2.5 Interactions Between Environmental Conditions and Form of N Nutrition;47
6.5.1;2.5.1 Temperature and Root Growth;47
6.5.2;2.5.2 Role of Ca in Root Elongation;51
6.5.3;2.5.3 Light Intensity;52
6.5.4;2.5.4 pH;53
6.5.5;2.5.5 Urea;53
6.5.6;2.5.6 Mycorrhiza–Root Association;54
6.6;2.6 Roots as Source and Sink for Organic Compounds and Plant Hormones;54
6.6.1;2.6.1 Hormone Activity;54
6.7;References;55
6.8;Further Readings;61
7;Chapter 3 Physical Characteristics of Soilless Media;62
7.1;3.1 Physical Properties of Soilless Media;62
7.1.1;3.1.1 Bulk Density;63
7.1.2;3.1.2 Particle Size Distribution;63
7.1.3;3.1.3 Porosity;65
7.1.4;3.1.4 Pore Distribution;66
7.2;3.2 Water Content and Water Potential in Soilless Media;67
7.2.1;3.2.1 Water Content;67
7.2.2;3.2.2 Capillarity, Water Potential and its Components;71
7.2.3;3.2.3 Water Retention Curve and Hysteresis;79
7.3;3.3 Water Movement in Soilless Media;86
7.3.1;3.3.1 Flow in Saturated Media;86
7.3.2;3.3.2 Flow in an Unsaturated Media;88
7.3.3;3.3.3 Richards Equation, Boundary and Initial Conditions;92
7.3.4;3.3.4 Wetting and Redistribution of Water in Soilless Media – Container Capacity;94
7.4;3.4 Uptake of Water by Plants in Soilless Media and Water Availability;97
7.4.1;3.4.1 Root Water Uptake;97
7.4.2;3.4.2 Modelling Root Water Uptake;100
7.4.3;3.4.3 Determining Momentary and Daily Water Uptake Rate;105
7.4.4;3.4.4 Roots Uptake Distribution Within Growing Containers;109
7.4.5;3.4.5 Water Availability vs. Atmospheric Demand;111
7.5;3.5 Solute Transport in Soilless Media;116
7.5.1;3.5.1 Transport Mechanisms – Diffusion, Dispersion, Convection;116
7.5.2;3.5.2 Convection–Dispersion Equation;120
7.5.3;3.5.3 Adsorption – Linear and Non-linear;120
7.5.4;3.5.4 Non-equilibrium Transport – Physical and Chemical Non-equilibria;122
7.5.5;3.5.5 Modelling Root Nutrient Uptake – Single-root and Root-system;123
7.6;3.6 Gas Transport in Soilless Media;125
7.6.1;3.6.1 General Concepts;125
7.6.2;3.6.2 Mechanisms of Gas Transport;126
7.6.3;3.6.3 Modelling Gas Transport in Soilless Media;128
7.7;References;129
8;Chapter 4 Irrigation in Soilless Production;138
8.1;4.1 Introduction;138
8.1.1;4.1.1 Water Movement in Plants;140
8.1.2;4.1.2 Water Potential;140
8.1.3;4.1.3 The Root Zone;143
8.1.4;4.1.4 Water Quality;145
8.2;4.2 Root Zone Moisture Dynamics;147
8.2.1;4.2.1 During an Irrigation Event;147
8.2.2;4.2.2 Between Irrigation Events;147
8.2.3;4.2.3 Prior to an Irrigation Event;148
8.3;4.3 Irrigation Objectives and Design Characteristics;149
8.3.1;4.3.1 Capacity;149
8.3.2;4.3.2 Uniformity;149
8.4;4.4 Irrigation Delivery Systems;151
8.4.1;4.4.1 Overhead Systems;153
8.4.2;4.4.2 Surface Systems;155
8.4.3;4.4.3 Subsurface;158
8.5;4.5 Irrigation System Control Methods;162
8.5.1;4.5.1 Occasional Irrigation;162
8.5.2;4.5.2 Pulse Irrigation;162
8.5.3;4.5.3 High Frequency Irrigation;163
8.5.4;4.5.4 Continuous Irrigation;163
8.6;4.6 Irrigation Decisions;164
8.6.1;4.6.1 Irrigation Frequency;164
8.6.2;4.6.2 Duration of Irrigation Event;165
8.7;4.7 Approaches to Making Irrigation Decisions;166
8.7.1;4.7.1 ‘Look and Feel’ Method;166
8.7.2;4.7.2 Gravimetric Method;167
8.7.3;4.7.3 Time-based Method;167
8.7.4;4.7.4 Sensor-based Methods;168
8.7.5;4.7.5 Model-based Irrigation;172
8.8;4.8 Future Research Directions;174
8.9;References;176
9;Chapter 5 Technical Equipment in Soilless Production Systems;178
9.1;5.1 Introduction;178
9.2;5.2 Water and Irrigation;179
9.2.1;5.2.1 Water Supply;179
9.2.2;5.2.2 Irrigation Approaches;182
9.2.3;5.2.3 Fertigation Hardware;188
9.3;5.3 Production Systems;199
9.3.1;5.3.1 Systems on the Ground;199
9.3.2;5.3.2 Above-ground Production Systems;207
9.4;5.4 Examples of Specific Soilless Crop Production Systems;213
9.4.1;5.4.1 Fruiting Vegetables;213
9.4.2;5.4.2 Single-harvest Leaf Vegetables;215
9.4.3;5.4.3 Single-harvest Sown Vegetables;216
9.4.4;5.4.4 Other Speciality Crops;216
9.4.5;5.4.5 Cut Flowers;218
9.4.6;5.4.6 Potted Plants;220
9.5;5.5 Discussion and Conclusion;222
9.6;References;225
10;Chapter 6 Chemical Characteristics of Soilless Media;230
10.1;6.1 Charge Characteristics;231
10.1.1;6.1.1 Adsorption of Nutritional Elements to Exchange Sites;237
10.2;6.2 Specific Adsorption and Interactions Between Cations/Anions and Substrate Solids;238
10.2.1;6.2.1 Phosphorus;239
10.2.2;6.2.2 Zinc;244
10.2.3;6.2.3 Effects of P and Zn Addition on Solution Si Concentration;245
10.3;6.3 Plant-induced Changes in the Rhizosphere;246
10.3.1;6.3.1 Effects on Chemical Properties of Surfaces of Substrate Solids;246
10.3.2;6.3.2 Effects on Nutrients Availability;251
10.3.3;6.3.3 Assessing the Impact of Plants: The Effect of Citric Acid Addition on P Availability;254
10.4;6.4 Nutrient Release from Inorganic and Organic Substrates;257
10.5;References;260
11;Chapter 7 Analytical Methods Used in Soilless Cultivation;266
11.1;7.1 Introduction;266
11.1.1;7.1.1 Why to Analyse Growing Media?;266
11.1.2;7.1.2 Variation;269
11.1.3;7.1.3 Interrelationships;269
11.2;7.2 Physical Analysis;270
11.2.1;7.2.1 Sample Preparation (Bulk Sampling and Sub-sampling);270
11.2.2;7.2.2 Bulk Sampling Preformed Materials;270
11.2.3;7.2.3 Bulk Sampling Loose Material;270
11.2.4;7.2.4 Sub-sampling Pre-formed materials;271
11.2.5;7.2.5 Sub-sampling Loose Materials;271
11.3;7.3 Methods;271
11.3.1;7.3.1 Bulk Density;271
11.3.2;7.3.2 Porosity;274
11.3.3;7.3.3 Particle Size;275
11.3.4;7.3.4 Water Retention and Air Content;276
11.3.5;7.3.5 Rewetting;278
11.3.6;7.3.6 Rehydration Rate;279
11.3.7;7.3.7 Hydrophobicity (or Water Repellency);280
11.3.8;7.3.8 Shrinkage;281
11.3.9;7.3.9 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity;282
11.3.10;7.3.10 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity;283
11.3.11;7.3.11 Oxygen Diffusion;285
11.3.12;7.3.12 Penetrability;288
11.3.13;7.3.13 Hardness, Stickiness;290
11.4;7.4 Chemical Analysis;291
11.4.1;7.4.1 Water-soluble Elements;293
11.4.2;7.4.2 Exchangeable, Semi- and Non-water Soluble Elements;296
11.4.3;7.4.3 The pH in Loose Media;297
11.4.4;7.4.4 Nitrogen Immobilization;298
11.4.5;7.4.5 Calcium Carbonate Content;298
11.5;7.5 Biological Analysis;298
11.5.1;7.5.1 Stability (and Rate of Biodegradation);299
11.5.2;7.5.2 Potential Biodegradability;300
11.5.3;7.5.3 Heat Evolution (Dewar Test);300
11.5.4;7.5.4 Solvita Test’;300
11.5.5;7.5.5 Respiration Rate by CO2 Production;301
11.5.6;7.5.6 Respiration Rate by O2 Consumption (The Potential Standard Method);301
11.5.7;7.5.7 Weed Test;303
11.5.8;7.5.8 Growth Test;304
11.6;References;307
12;Chapter 8 Nutrition of Substrate-grown Plants;312
12.1;8.1 General;312
12.2;8.2 Nutrient Requirements of Substrate-grown Plants;313
12.2.1;8.2.1 General;313
12.2.2;8.2.2 Consumption Curves of Crops;316
12.3;8.3 Impact of N Source;321
12.3.1;8.3.1 Modification of the Rhizosphere pH and Improvement of Nutrient Availability;324
12.3.2;8.3.2 Cation-anion Balance in Plant and Growth Disorders Induced by NH4+ Toxicity;328
12.4;8.4 Integrated Effect of Irrigation Frequency and Nutrients Level;331
12.4.1;8.4.1 Nutrient Availability and Uptake by Plants;332
12.4.2;8.4.2 Direct and Indirect Outcomes of Irrigation Frequency on Plant Growth;336
12.5;8.5 Salinity Effect on Crop Production;339
12.5.1;8.5.1 General;339
12.5.2;8.5.2 Salinity-nutrients Relationships;340
12.5.3;8.5.3 Yield Quality Induced by Salinity;345
12.6;8.6 Composition of Nutrient Solution;346
12.6.1;8.6.1 pH Manipulation;347
12.6.2;8.6.2 Salinity Control;348
12.7;References;349
13;Chapter 9 Fertigation Management and Crops Response to Solution Recycling in Semi-closed Greenhouses;362
13.1;9.1 System Description;364
13.1.1;9.1.1 Essential Components;364
13.1.2;9.1.2 Processes and System Variables and Parameters;365
13.1.3;9.1.3 Substrate Considerations;367
13.1.4;9.1.4 Monitoring;375
13.1.5;9.1.5 Control;376
13.2;9.2 Management;380
13.2.1;9.2.1 Inorganic Ion Accumulation;380
13.2.2;9.2.2 Organic Carbon Accumulation;386
13.2.3;9.2.3 Microflora Accumulation;388
13.2.4;9.2.4 Discharge Strategies;388
13.2.5;9.2.5 Substrate and Solution Volume Per Plant;390
13.2.6;9.2.6 Effect of Substrate Type;394
13.2.7;9.2.7 Water and Nutrients Replenishment;395
13.2.8;9.2.8 Water Quality Aspects;401
13.2.9;9.2.9 Fertigation Frequency;402
13.2.10;9.2.10 pH Control: Nitrification and Protons and Carboxylates Excretion by Roots;404
13.2.11;9.2.11 Root Zone Temperature;412
13.2.12;9.2.12 Interrelationship Between Climate and Solution Recycling;414
13.2.13;9.2.13 Effect of N Sources and Concentration on Root Disease Incidence;416
13.3;9.3 Specific Crops Response to Recirculation;418
13.3.1;9.3.1 Vegetable Crops;418
13.3.2;9.3.2 Ornamental Crops;426
13.4;9.4 Modelling the Crop-Recirculation System;430
13.4.1;9.4.1 Review of Existing Models;430
13.4.2;9.4.2 Examples of Closed-loop Irrigation System Simulations;431
13.5;9.5 Outlook: Model-based Decision-support Tools for Semi-Closed Systems;437
13.6;Acknowledgement;438
13.7;Appendix;439
13.8;References;440
14;Chapter 10 Pathogen Detection and Management Strategies in Soilless Plant Growing Systems;446
14.1;10.1 Introduction;446
14.1.1;10.1.1 Interaction Between Growing Systems and Plant Pathogens;446
14.1.2;10.1.2 Disease-Management Strategies;447
14.1.3;10.1.3 Overview of the Chapter;447
14.2;10.2 Detection of Pathogens;448
14.2.1;10.2.1 Disease Potential in Closed Systems;448
14.2.2;10.2.2 Biological and Detection Thresholds;449
14.2.3;10.2.3 Method Requirements for Detection and Monitoring;451
14.2.4;10.2.4 Detection Techniques;451
14.2.5;10.2.5 Possibilities and Drawbacks of Molecular Detection Methods for Practical Application;453
14.2.6;10.2.6 Future Developments;454
14.3;10.3 Microbial Balance;455
14.3.1;10.3.1 Microbiological Vacuum;455
14.3.2;10.3.2 Microbial Populations in Closed Soilless Systems;456
14.3.3;10.3.3 Plant as Driving Factor of the Microflora;458
14.3.4;10.3.4 Biological Control Agents;459
14.3.5;10.3.5 Disease-suppressive Substrate;461
14.3.6;10.3.6 Conclusions;462
14.4;10.4 Disinfestation of the Nutrient Solution;463
14.4.1;10.4.1 Recirculation of Drainage Water;463
14.4.2;10.4.2 Volume to be Disinfected;463
14.4.3;10.4.3 Filtration;465
14.4.4;10.4.4 Heat Treatment;467
14.4.5;10.4.5 Oxidation;468
14.4.6;10.4.6 Electromagnetic Radiation;470
14.4.7;10.4.7 Active Carbon Adsorption;471
14.4.8;10.4.8 Copper Ionisation;472
14.4.9;10.4.9 Conclusions;472
14.5;10.5 Synthesis: Combined Strategies;473
14.5.1;10.5.1 Combining Strategies;473
14.5.2;10.5.2 Combining Biological Control Agents and Disinfestation;473
14.5.3;10.5.3 Non-pathogenic Microflora After Disinfestation;473
14.5.4;10.5.4 Addition of Beneficial Microbes to Sand Filters;474
14.5.5;10.5.5 Detection of Pathogenic and Beneficial Micro-organisms;474
14.5.6;10.5.6 Future;474
14.6;Acknowledgements;475
14.7;References;475
15;Chapter 11 Organic Soilless Media Components;480
15.1;11.1 Introduction;480
15.2;11.2 Peat;481
15.2.1;11.2.1 Chemical Properties;484
15.2.2;11.2.2 Physical Properties;485
15.2.3;11.2.3 Nutrition in Peat;487
15.3;11.3 Coir;489
15.3.1;11.3.1 Production of Coir;489
15.3.2;11.3.2 Chemical Properties;490
15.3.3;11.3.3 Physical Properties;493
15.3.4;11.3.4 Plant Growth in Coir;494
15.4;11.4 Wood Fibre;494
15.4.1;11.4.1 Production of Wood Fibre;494
15.4.2;11.4.2 Chemical Properties;495
15.4.3;11.4.3 Physical Properties;497
15.4.4;11.4.4 Nitrogen Immobilization;497
15.4.5;11.4.5 Crop Production in Wood Fibre;498
15.4.6;11.4.6 The Composting Process;498
15.5;11.5 Bark;500
15.5.1;11.5.1 Chemical Properties;500
15.5.2;11.5.2 Nitrogen Immobilization;502
15.5.3;11.5.3 Physical Properties;502
15.5.4;11.5.4 Plant Growth;502
15.6;11.6 Sawdust;503
15.7;11.7 Composted Plant Waste;503
15.8;11.8 Other Materials;507
15.9;11.9 Stability of Growing Media;508
15.9.1;11.9.1 Physical and Biological Stability;508
15.9.2;11.9.2 Pathogen Survival in Compost;510
15.10;11.10 Disease Suppression by Organic Growing Media;511
15.10.1;11.10.1 The Phenomenon and its Description;511
15.10.2;11.10.2 Suggested Mechanisms for Suppressiveness of Compost Against Root Diseases;511
15.10.3;11.10.3 Horticultural Considerations of Use of Compost as Soilless Substrate;515
15.11;References;517
16;Chapter 12 Inorganic and Synthetic Organic Components of Soilless Culture and Potting Mixes;526
16.1;12.1 Introduction;526
16.2;12.2 Most Commonly Used Inorganic Substrates in Soilless Culture;527
16.2.1;12.2.1 Natural Unmodified Materials;528
16.2.2;12.2.2 Processed Materials;532
16.2.3;12.2.3 Mineral Wool;537
16.3;12.3 Most Commonly Used Synthetic Organic Media in Soilless Culture;539
16.3.1;12.3.1 Polyurethane;539
16.3.2;12.3.2 Polystyrene;541
16.3.3;12.3.3 Polyester Fleece;542
16.4;12.4 Substrates Mixtures „ Theory and Practice;544
16.4.1;12.4.1 Substrate Mixtures „ Physical Properties;544
16.4.2;12.4.2 Substrate Mixtures „ Chemical Properties;552
16.4.3;12.4.3 Substrate Mixtures „ Practice;553
16.5;12.5 Concluding Remarks;557
16.6;Acknowledgements;558
16.7;References;558
17;Chapter 13 Growing Plants in Soilless Culture: Operational Conclusions;566
17.1;13.1 Evolution of Soilless Production Systems;566
17.1.1;13.1.1 Major Limitation of Soilless- vs. Soil-growing Plants;567
17.1.2;13.1.2 The Effects of Restricted Root Volume on Crop Performance and Management;568
17.1.3;13.1.3 The Effects of Restricted Root Volume on Plant Nutrition;569
17.1.4;13.1.4 Root Confinement by Rigid Barriers and Other Contributing Factors;571
17.1.5;13.1.5 Root Exposure to Ambient Conditions;573
17.1.6;13.1.6 Root Zone Uniformity;573
17.2;13.2 Development and Change of Soilless Production Systems;574
17.2.1;13.2.1 How New Substrates and Growing Systems Emerge (and Disappear);574
17.2.2;13.2.2 Environmental Restrictions and the Use of Closed Systems;575
17.2.3;13.2.3 Soilless ‘Organic’ Production Systems;576
17.2.4;13.2.4 Tailoring Plants for Soilless Culture: A Challenge for Plant Breeders;578
17.2.5;13.2.5 Choosing the Appropriate Medium, Root Volume and Growing System;578
17.3;13.3 Management of Soilless Production Systems;582
17.3.1;13.3.1 Interrelationships Among Various Operational Parameters;582
17.3.2;13.3.2 Dynamic Nature of the Soilless Root Zone;583
17.3.3;13.3.3 Sensing and Controlling Root-zone Major Parameters: Present and Future;587
17.4;References;588
18;Index of Organism Names;594
19;Subject Index;600