Thomas / Grohens / Ninan Nanotechnology Applications for Tissue Engineering

1. Auflage 2015
ISBN: 978-0-323-35303-8
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 336 Seiten

Reihe: Micro and Nano Technologies

Tissue engineering involves seeding of cells on bio-mimicked scaffolds providing adhesive surfaces. Researchers though face a range of problems in generating tissue which can be circumvented by employing nanotechnology. It provides substrates for cell adhesion and proliferation and agents for cell growth and can be used to create nanostructures and nanoparticles to aid the engineering of different types of tissue. Written by renowned scientists from academia and industry, this book covers the recent developments, trends and innovations in the application of nanotechnologies in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. It provides information on methodologies for designing and using biomaterials to regenerate tissue, on novel nano-textured surface features of materials (nano-structured polymers and metals e.g.) as well as on theranostics, immunology and nano-toxicology aspects. In the book also explained are fabrication techniques for production of scaffolds to a series of tissue-specific applications of scaffolds in tissue engineering for specific biomaterials and several types of tissue (such as skin bone, cartilage, vascular, cardiac, bladder and brain tissue). Furthermore, developments in nano drug delivery, gene therapy and cancer nanotechonology are described. The book helps readers to gain a working knowledge about the nanotechnology aspects of tissue engineering and will be of great use to those involved in building specific tissue substitutes in reaching their objective in a more efficient way. It is aimed for R&D and academic scientists, lab engineers, lecturers and PhD students engaged in the fields of tissue engineering or more generally regenerative medicine, nanomedicine, medical devices, nanofabrication, biofabrication, nano- and biomaterials and biomedical engineering. - Provides state-of-the-art knowledge on how nanotechnology can help tackling known problems in tissue engineering - Covers materials design, fabrication techniques for tissue-specific applications as well as immunology and toxicology aspects - Helps scientists and lab engineers building tissue substitutes in a more efficient way

Autoren/Hrsg.

Thomas, Sabu

Grohens, Yves

Ninan, Neethu

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Nanotechnology Applications for Tissue Engineering;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Contents;6
5;List of Contributors;14
6;About the Editors;18
7;Preface;20
8;1 Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering;22
8.1;1.1 Introduction;22
8.1.1;1.1.1 Nanomedicine;22
8.1.2;1.1.2 Tissue Engineering;23
8.2;1.2 Relationship of Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering;23
8.2.1;1.2.1 Nanomedicine Approaches in Bone Tissue Engineering;25
8.2.2;1.2.2 Nanomedicine Approaches in Cardiac Tissue Engineering;26
8.2.3;1.2.3 Nanomedicine Approaches in Skin Tissue Engineering;27
8.2.4;1.2.4 Nanomedicine Approaches in Brain Tissue Engineering;28
8.2.5;1.2.5 Nanomedicine Approaches for Other Tissue Engineering Disciplines;28
8.3;1.3 Nanodrug Delivery Systems for Tissue Regeneration;29
8.3.1;1.3.1 Nanotheranostics;29
8.3.2;1.3.2 Nanoregeneration Medicine;30
8.3.3;1.3.3 Nanodrug Delivery;30
8.3.3.1;1.3.3.1 Dendrimers;30
8.3.3.2;1.3.3.2 Liposomes;31
8.3.3.3;1.3.3.3 Carbon Nanotubes;33
8.3.3.4;1.3.3.4 Nanocomposite Hydrogel;34
8.4;1.4 Medical Applications of Molecular Nanotechnology;34
8.4.1;1.4.1 Nanorobots;34
8.4.2;1.4.2 Cell Repair Machines;35
8.5;1.5 Summary and Future Directions;35
8.6;References;35
9;2 Biomaterials: Design, Development and Biomedical Applications;42
9.1;2.1 Overview;42
9.2;2.2 Design of Biomaterials;43
9.2.1;2.2.1 Polymers;44
9.2.2;2.2.2 Metals;44
9.2.3;2.2.3 Composite Materials;45
9.2.4;2.2.4 Ceramics;46
9.3;2.3 Basic Considerations to Design Biomaterial;46
9.4;2.4 Characteristics of Biomaterials;47
9.4.1;2.4.1 Nontoxicity;47
9.4.2;2.4.2 Biocompatible;48
9.4.3;2.4.3 Absence of Foreign Body Reaction;48
9.4.4;2.4.4 Mechanical Properties and Performance;48
9.5;2.5 Fundamental Aspects of Tissue Responses to Biomaterials;49
9.5.1;2.5.1 Injury;49
9.5.2;2.5.2 Blood–Material Interactions and Initiation of the Inflammatory Response;50
9.5.3;2.5.3 Provisional Matrix Formation;50
9.5.4;2.5.4 Acute Inflammation;50
9.5.5;2.5.5 Chronic Inflammation;51
9.5.6;2.5.6 Granulation Tissue;51
9.5.7;2.5.7 Foreign Body Reaction;51
9.5.8;2.5.8 Fibrosis and Fibrous Encapsulation;51
9.6;2.6 Evaluation of Biomaterial Behavior;52
9.6.1;2.6.1 Assessment of Physical Properties;52
9.6.2;2.6.2 In vitro Assessment;52
9.6.3;2.6.3 In vivo Assessment;53
9.7;2.7 Properties of Biomaterials Assessed Through In Vivo Experiments;54
9.7.1;2.7.1 Sensitization, Irritation, and Intracutaneous Reactivity;55
9.7.2;2.7.2 Systemic, Subacute, and Subchronic Toxicity;55
9.7.3;2.7.3 Genotoxicity;55
9.7.4;2.7.4 Implantation;55
9.7.5;2.7.5 Hemocompatibility;56
9.7.6;2.7.6 Chronic Toxicity;56
9.7.7;2.7.7 Carcinogenicity;56
9.7.8;2.7.8 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity;57
9.7.9;2.7.9 Biodegradation;57
9.7.10;2.7.10 Immune Responses;57
9.8;2.8 Applications of Biomaterials;57
9.8.1;2.8.1 Orthopedic Applications;57
9.8.2;2.8.2 Ophthalmologic Applications;58
9.8.3;2.8.3 Cardiovascular Applications;58
9.8.4;2.8.4 Dental Applications;59
9.8.5;2.8.5 Wound Dressing Applications;60
9.8.6;2.8.6 Other Applications;60
9.9;2.9 Future Directions in Biomaterials;61
9.10;2.10 Conclusions;62
9.11;Acknowledgments;62
9.12;References;62
10;3 Electrospinning of Polymers for Tissue Engineering;66
10.1;3.1 Introduction;66
10.2;3.2 History of Electrospinning;67
10.3;3.3 Experimental Setup and Basic Principle;67
10.3.1;3.3.1 Theoretical Background;69
10.4;3.4 Effects of Parameters on Electrospinning;70
10.4.1;3.4.1 Solution Parameters;70
10.4.2;3.4.2 Concentration and Viscosity;70
10.4.3;3.4.3 Molecular Weight;70
10.4.4;3.4.4 Surface Tension;71
10.4.5;3.4.5 Conductivity of the Solution;71
10.4.6;3.4.6 Applied Voltage;71
10.4.7;3.4.7 Flow Rate of the Solution;72
10.4.8;3.4.8 Tip to Collector Distance;72
10.4.9;3.4.9 Collector Composition and Geometry;72
10.4.10;3.4.10 Ambient Parameters;72
10.5;3.5 Biomedical Applications of Electrospun Nanofibers;73
10.6;3.6 Conclusion;74
10.7;Acknowledgments;74
10.8;References;74
11;4 Biomimetic Nanofibers for Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering;78
11.1;4.1 Structural and Functional Requirements for Musculoskeletal Tissues;78
11.1.1;4.1.1 Tendons and Ligaments;78
11.1.2;4.1.2 Knee Meniscus;79
11.1.3;4.1.3 Intervertebral Disc;79
11.1.4;4.1.4 Bone;79
11.1.5;4.1.5 Tissue Interfaces;80
11.2;4.2 Nanofibers as 3D Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration;81
11.2.1;4.2.1 Aligned Fibers for Musculoskeletal Engineering;82
11.2.2;4.2.2 Braided Nanofibers for Ligament and Tendon Regeneration;83
11.2.3;4.2.3 Hybrids, Nanocomposites, and Surface Mineralization of Fibers for Bone Regeneration;84
11.3;4.3 Extracellular Matrix Analogs for Cartilage Regeneration;85
11.4;4.4 Bioactive Nanofibers and Methods of Immobilizing Biomolecules;86
11.5;4.5 Gene Delivery Through Nanofibers;88
11.6;4.6 Techniques to Improve Porosity and Cell Infiltration on Nanofiber Scaffolds;89
11.7;4.7 Nanofiber Scaffolds for Interface Regeneration;90
11.8;4.8 Conclusion;91
11.9;References;92
12;5 Hydrogels—Promising Candidates for Tissue Engineering;98
12.1;5.1 Introduction;98
12.2;5.2 Polymer;98
12.3;5.3 Hydrogel;100
12.3.1;5.3.1 Important Properties of Hydrogel;101
12.3.2;5.3.2 Classification of Hydrogels;102
12.4;5.4 Different Types of Hydrogels Used in TE;104
12.4.1;5.4.1 Fibroin and Silk Hydrogel;105
12.4.2;5.4.2 Bioresponsive Hydrogel;106
12.4.3;5.4.3 Thermoresponsive Hydrogel;107
12.4.4;5.4.4 Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels;107
12.4.5;5.4.5 pH-Responsive Hydrogels;107
12.4.6;5.4.6 Microengineering Hydrogel;108
12.4.7;5.4.7 Photopolymerized Hydrogels;108
12.4.8;5.4.8 Nanocomposite Hydrogels;109
12.5;5.5 Conclusion;110
12.6;References;110
13;6 3D Scaffolding for Pancreatic Islet Replacement;116
13.1;6.1 Introduction;116
13.2;6.2 Oxygenation—Prime Factor for Islet Survival;121
13.3;6.3 Conclusion;122
13.4;Acknowledgments;122
13.5;References;122
14;7 Scaffolds with Antibacterial Properties;124
14.1;7.1 Introduction;124
14.2;7.2 Nanoparticles Incorporated Antibacterial Scaffolds;125
14.2.1;7.2.1 Silver Nanoparticle-Loaded Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;126
14.2.2;7.2.2 ZnO Nanoparticle-Loaded Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;128
14.2.3;7.2.3 Nanoceria-Doped Nanoparticle-Loaded Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;131
14.3;7.3 Antibiotics-Loaded Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;135
14.4;7.4 Conclusion;141
14.5;Acknowledgments;141
14.6;References;141
15;8 Dermal Tissue Engineering: Current Trends;146
15.1;8.1 Introduction;146
15.2;8.2 Nanotopography-Guided Skin Tissue Engineering;147
15.3;8.3 Stem Cells for Skin Tissue Engineering;148
15.4;8.4 Scarless Fetal Skin Wound Healing;150
15.5;8.5 Conclusion;151
15.6;Acknowledgment;151
15.7;References;151
16;9 Chitosan and Its Application as Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;154
16.1;9.1 Introduction;154
16.2;9.2 Chitosan as Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering Scaffold;154
16.2.1;9.2.1 Porous Scaffold;155
16.2.2;9.2.2 Microsphere Scaffold;157
16.2.3;9.2.3 Hydrogel Scaffold;159
16.2.4;9.2.4 Nanofiber Scaffold;162
16.3;9.3 Biomedical Applications;162
16.3.1;9.3.1 Bone Tissue Engineering;162
16.3.2;9.3.2 Skin Tissue Engineering;163
16.4;9.4 Conclusion;164
16.5;Acknowledgment;164
16.6;References;165
17;10 Cell Encapsulation in Polymeric Self-Assembled Hydrogels;170
17.1;10.1 Overview;170
17.2;10.2 Preparation of Self-Assembled Hydrogels;171
17.2.1;10.2.1 Method (A);171
17.2.2;10.2.2 Method (B);171
17.3;10.3 Hydrogels Characteristics for Cells;172
17.3.1;10.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Hydrogels;173
17.3.2;10.3.2 Hydrogels Biodegradability;173
17.3.3;10.3.3 Porosity of Hydrogels;173
17.4;10.4 Self-Assembled Hydrogels;174
17.5;10.5 Significance of Natural and Synthetic Polymer for Hydrogels;175
17.5.1;10.5.1 Natural Polymers;175
17.5.2;10.5.2 Synthetic Polymers;178
17.5.3;10.5.3 Natural and Synthetic Polymers;181
17.6;10.6 Recent Development of Self-Assembled Hydrogels;184
17.7;10.7 Future Trends;185
17.8;10.8 Conclusions;186
17.9;Acknowledgments;186
17.10;References;187
18;11 Nanotechnology-Enabled Drug Delivery for Cancer Therapy;194
18.1;11.1 Cancer;194
18.2;11.2 Mutation of Gene;195
18.2.1;11.2.1 Oncogenes;195
18.2.2;11.2.2 Tumor Suppressor Genes;195
18.2.3;11.2.3 DNA Repair Genes;195
18.3;11.3 Nanotechnology and Its Application;196
18.4;11.4 Cancer Detection and Diagnosis;197
18.4.1;11.4.1 Cancer Detection Using Biomarkers;197
18.4.2;11.4.2 Molecular Cancer Imaging;197
18.4.3;11.4.3 Molecular Cancer Diagnosis;198
18.5;11.5 Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology;198
18.5.1;11.5.1 Carbon Nanotubes;199
18.5.2;11.5.2 Quantum Dots;199
18.5.3;11.5.3 Dendrimers;204
18.5.4;11.5.4 Metallic Nanoparticles;206
18.6;11.6 Conclusion;209
18.7;Acknowledgment;209
18.8;References;209
19;12 Nanomedicine in Theranostics;216
19.1;12.1 Introduction;216
19.2;12.2 Nanotheranostics—A New Concept of Nanomedicine;217
19.3;12.3 Design of Theranostic Agents;219
19.4;12.4 Diagnosis Through Nanoparticle Imaging;219
19.4.1;12.4.1 Role of QDs in Bioimaging;220
19.4.2;12.4.2 Gold Nanoparticles as Imaging Agents;221
19.4.3;12.4.3 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for MRI;222
19.5;12.5 Therapy in Nanotheranostics—Drugs;223
19.5.1;12.5.1 Chemical Drugs;223
19.5.2;12.5.2 Genetic Drugs;224
19.6;12.6 Carriers of the Nanotheranostic System;225
19.6.1;12.6.1 Micelles as a Theranostic Carrier;226
19.6.2;12.6.2 Liposomes in Nanotheranostics;226
19.7;12.7 Theranostic Applications—the Current Situation;227
19.8;12.8 Future Perspectives of Nanotheranostics;231
19.9;12.9 Conclusion;231
19.10;References;232
20;13 Upconversion Nanoparticles;236
20.1;13.1 Introduction;236
20.2;13.2 Properties of UCNPs;236
20.3;13.3 Applications in Drug Delivery;237
20.4;13.4 Applications in Biological Imaging;238
20.5;13.5 Applications in Biological Detection;239
20.6;13.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook;240
20.7;Acknowledgments;240
20.8;References;241
21;14 Gold Nanoparticles in Cancer Drug Delivery;242
21.1;14.1 Introduction;242
21.2;14.2 Cancer Nanotechnology;242
21.2.1;14.2.1 Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications;243
21.2.2;14.2.2 Biodistribution of Nanoparticles;244
21.2.3;14.2.3 Enhanced Permeation and Retention Effect;244
21.2.4;14.2.4 Passive Targeting by Nanoparticles;245
21.2.5;14.2.5 Active Targeting by Nanoparticles;245
21.2.6;14.2.6 Potential to Overcome Drug Resistance;246
21.3;14.3 Gold Nanoparticles;246
21.3.1;14.3.1 Gold Nanoparticles in Biology and Medicine;247
21.3.2;14.3.2 Gold Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy;248
21.3.2.1;14.3.2.1 Targeted Drug Delivery Using Gold Nanoparticles;250
21.3.2.2;14.3.2.2 Photothermal Therapy;250
21.3.2.3;14.3.2.3 Gold Nanoparticles for Cancer Diagnosis;251
21.3.3;14.3.3 Biocompatibility of Gold Nanoparticle;252
21.4;14.4 Conclusion;252
21.5;References;253
22;15 Toxicology Considerations in Nanomedicine;260
22.1;15.1 Introduction;260
22.2;15.2 The Market Potential of Nanomedicines;260
22.3;15.3 Toxicity Associated with Nanomedicine;261
22.3.1;15.3.1 Dendrimers;261
22.3.2;15.3.2 Carbon Nanotubes;262
22.3.3;15.3.3 Fullerenes;264
22.3.4;15.3.4 Quantum Dots;267
22.3.5;15.3.5 Metallic NPs;269
22.4;15.4 Factors Affecting Nanomedicine Toxicity;272
22.4.1;15.4.1 Size;272
22.4.2;15.4.2 Shape;273
22.4.3;15.4.3 Surface Charge;273
22.4.4;15.4.4 Composition;273
22.4.5;15.4.5 Surface Coating;274
22.5;15.5 Toxicological Testing;274
22.5.1;15.5.1 In vitro Methods;274
22.5.2;15.5.2 In vivo Methods;276
22.5.3;15.5.3 In silico Methods;277
22.6;15.6 Conclusion;277
22.7;References;277
23;16 Role of Nanogenotoxicology Studies in Safety Evaluation of Nanomaterials;284
23.1;16.1 Introduction;284
23.2;16.2 Influence of the NMs’ Properties on their Biological Interactions;286
23.3;16.3 A Conceptual Framework for Toxicological Investigation in Nanomedicine;288
23.4;16.4 Nanogenotoxicology—an Essential Contribution for NMs Safety Assessment;290
23.4.1;16.4.1 The Standard Test Battery for Genotoxicity Assessment;290
23.4.2;16.4.2 Adaptation of the Standard Test Battery for Genotoxicity Assessment of NMs;295
23.5;16.5 State of the Art on Genotoxicity of NMs with Potential Interest for Scaffolds Fabrication;297
23.5.1;16.5.1 Polymers;298
23.5.2;16.5.2 Ceramics;300
23.5.3;16.5.3 Composites;300
23.6;16.6 Future Directions in the Genotoxicity Evaluation of NMs for Tissue Engineering;301
23.7;16.7 Conclusions;302
23.8;Acknowledgments;303
23.9;References;303
24;17 Future of Nanotechnology in Tissue Engineering;310
24.1;17.1 Introduction;310
24.1.1;17.1.1 Scaffold;311
24.1.2;17.1.2 Bone and Cartilage Tissue Engineering;312
24.1.3;17.1.3 Vascular Tissue Engineering;317
24.1.4;17.1.4 Nerve Regeneration;318
24.1.5;17.1.5 Nanomaterials in Bladder Tissue Engineering;322
24.2;17.2 Conclusion and Future Outlook;323
24.3;References;324
25;Index;328

Leseproben

Chapter 2 Biomaterials
Design, Development and Biomedical Applications
Gownolla Malegowd Raghavendra1, Kokkarachedu Varaprasad2,3 and Tippabattini Jayaramudu1,3,    1Synthetic Polymer Laboratory, Department of Polymer Science & Technology, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India,    2Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile,    3Department of Polymer Technology, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa The explorations in medical sciences have provided innumerable biomaterials that can perform, augment, or replace the natural function of a defective organ by interacting with the biological system. These materials represent a unique class of biomedical functional materials that potentially perform broad spectrum of biological activities in the absence of the original living tissue/organ, thereby replace the problems encountered with the defective tissue/organ and support smooth functioning of the organ and the living organism. The day-to-day increased demand in the medical field for the bioalternatives that could be able to perform the living activities of bodily organs has raised the interest of the researchers to design novel biomaterials. Hence, the study of biomaterials has become crucial for the material scientists and engineers to understand more about biomaterials. In that point of view, the present chapter focuses on the design, development, and biomedical applications of biomaterials. Keywords
Biomaterials; defective organ; biomedical functional materials; living organism; bioalternatives 2.1 Overview
Trauma, degeneration and diseases often bring the necessity of surgical repair. This usually requires replacement of the skeletal parts that include knees, hips, finger joints, elbows, vertebrae, teeth, and other bodily vital organs like kidney, heart, skin, etc. All these materials which perform the respective function of the living materials when replaced are termed as “Biomaterials.” The Clemson University Advisory Board for biomaterials has formally defined biomaterial as “a systemically and pharmacologically inert substance designed for implantation within or incorporation with living systems” [1]. Biomaterial is also defined as “a nonviable material used in a medical device, intended to interact with biological systems” [2]. Other definitions of biomaterial include “materials of synthetic as well as of natural origin in contact with tissue, blood, and biological fluids, intended for use for prosthetic, diagnostic, therapeutic, and storage applications without adversely affecting the living organism and its components” [3] and “any substance (other than drugs) or combination of substances, synthetic or natural in origin, which can be used for any period of time, as a whole or as a part of a system which treats, augments, or replaces any tissue, organ, or function of the body” [4]. As the definition for the term “biomaterial” has been difficult to formulate, the more widely accepted working definitions include: “A biomaterial is any material, natural or man-made, that comprises whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces a natural function” [5]. The word “Biomaterial” should not be confusing with the word “Biological material.” In general, a biological material is a material such as skin or artery, produced by a biological system. The study of biomaterials is called ‘Biomaterials Science’ which encompasses the elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering, and materials science. A number of factors, including the aging population, increasing preference by younger to middle aged candidates to undertake surgery, improvements in the technology and life style, better understanding of body functionality, improved esthetics and need for better function resulted in enormous expansion of Biomaterial Science from day to day and it is supposed to be a continuous process. As the field of biomaterials experienced steady and strong growth, many companies are investing larger amounts of money for the development of new products. Biomaterial is not of a recent origin. The introduction of nonbiological materials into the human body was noted many centuries ago, far back in prehistory. The remains of a human found near Kennewick, WA (often referred to as the “Kennewick Man”) concluded the usage of a spear point embedded in his hip which was dated to be 9000 years old [6]. Some of the earliest biomaterial applications were found as far back in ancient Phoenicia, where loose teeth were bound together with gold wires for tying artificial ones to neighboring teeth. The Mayan people fashioned nacre teeth from sea shells in roughly 600 AD and apparently achieved what we now refer to as bone integration. Similarly, a corpse dated 200 AD with an iron dental implant found in Europe was described as properly bone integrated [7]. Though there was no materials science, biological understanding, or medicine behind the followed procedures, still their success is impressive and highlights two points: the forgiving nature of the human body and the pressing drive, even in prehistoric times, to address the loss of physiologic/anatomic function with an implant [6]. It is understood from the sources that though there were no medical device manufacturers, no formalized regulatory approval processes, no understanding of biocompatibility, and no certain academic courses on biomaterials, yet crude biomaterials have been used, generally with poor to mixed results, throughout history. In the modern times, early in the 1900s, bone plates were introduced to aid in the fixation of long bone fractures [8]. Many of these early plates broke as a result of unsophisticated mechanical design, as they were too thin and had stress concentrating corners. Also, materials such as vanadium steel though chosen as biomaterial owing to its good mechanical properties, corroded rapidly in the body and caused adverse effects on the healing processes. Hence, better designs and materials were soon followed. With the introduction of stainless steels and cobalt chromium alloys in the 1930s, greater success was achieved in fracture fixation, and the first joint replacement surgeries were performed [9]. As for polymers, poly(methyl methacrylate) was widely used for replacements of sections of damaged skull bones. Following further advances in materials and in surgical technique, in 1950s blood vessel replacements were tried and during 1960s, heart valve replacements and cemented joint replacements came into usage. Recent years have seen many further advances [10–12]. At the dawn of the twenty-first century, biomaterials are widely used throughout medicine, dentistry, and biotechnology. Biomaterials which existed 50 years ago did not exist today as they are replaced by newer ones that give much more comfort indicating the day-to-day advances in the biomaterials field [6]. Hence, keeping all these into consideration, the chapter is aimed to describe the design and development of biomaterials. In addition to these, biomedical applications are also discussed. 2.2 Design of Biomaterials
Biomaterial is a nonviable (able to function successfully after implantation) substance intended to interact with biological systems. Their usage within a physiological medium is possible with the efficient and reliable characteristics of the biomaterials [13]. These characteristic features are provided with a suitable combination of chemical, mechanical, physical, and biological properties, to design well-established biomaterials [14]. These biomaterials are specifically designed by utilizing the classes of materials: polymers, metals, composite materials, and ceramics. Most of the biomaterials available today are developed either singly or in combination of the materials of these classes. These classes of materials have different atomic arrangement which present the diversified structural, physical, chemical, and mechanical properties and hence offer various alternative applications in the body. The classes of the materials are illustrated in the following sections. 2.2.1 Polymers
Polymers are the convenient materials for biomedical applications and are used as cardiovascular devices for replacement and proliferation of various soft tissues. There are a large number of polymeric materials that have been used as implants. The current applications of them include cardiac valves, artificial hearts, vascular grafts, breast prosthesis, dental materials [15], contact and intraocular lenses [16], fixtures of extracorporeal oxygenators, dialysis and plasmapheresis systems, coating materials for medical products, surgical materials, tissue adhesives, etc. [17]. The composition, structure, and organization of constituent macromolecules specify the properties of polymers [13]. Further, the versatility in diverse application requires the production of polymers that are prepared in different structures and compositions with appropriate physicochemical, interfacial, and biomimetic properties to meet specific purpose. The advantages of the polymeric biomaterials over other classes of materials are (i) ease to manufacture, (ii) ease of secondary processability, (iii) availability with desired mechanical and physical properties,...