Vincent The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III)

1. Auflage 2011
ISBN: 978-0-08-047539-4
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 292 Seiten

Chromium nutritional supplements are the second best selling mineral supplements after calcium as chromium is found in pills, sports drinks, chewing gums, smoothies, and numerous other products. Chromium has been promoted to promote weight loss and muscle development and most recently to be available to treat the symptoms of type 2 diabetes and related conditions.
The aim of The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III) is to examine the four most controversial areas of chromium nutrition and biochemistry:
- is chromium an essential element for humans and are chromium nutritional supplements of value?
- what biochemical role, if any, does chromium play in the body
- can large doses of chromium(III) be used to treat symptoms of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and related medical conditions
- is the use of chromium(III) supplements a health concern.
Scientific experts, who are recognized leaders in the field, weigh in with their opinions on both sides of these issues in this book.
A background review of the field from 1955-1995 by Vincent opens the book and concludes with a summary by Dr. Forrest Nielsen, Center Director of the USDA's Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center concludes the book.
* Point-counterpoint format, providing both sides of major issues
* Complete coverage of current issues, including nutrition, health, biochemical role and toxicology
* Authors are recognised experts and leaders in this field

Autoren/Hrsg.

Vincent, John

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Cover;1
2;Copyright Page;5
3;Table of Contents;6
4;Preface;8
5;Contributors;12
6;Chapter 1 Introduction: A history of chromium studies (1955–1995);14
6.1;INTRODUCTION;14
6.2;CHROMIUM(III);15
6.3;THE GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR (GTF) STORY;15
6.3.1;The identification of GTF;15
6.3.2;Brewer’s yeast “GTF”;17
6.3.3;Biological activity assays;20
6.3.4;Porcine kidney powder “GTF”;21
6.3.5;Other questions regarding “GTF”;21
6.3.6;Conclusions;22
6.4;THE RACE TO SYNTHESIZE A MODEL OF “GTF”;22
6.5;THE CHROMIUM PICOLINATE (Cr(pic)3) STORY;23
6.5.1;Nutritional supplement?;23
6.5.2;Toxic effects?;25
6.5.3;Inorganic chemistry;25
6.6;PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES;26
6.6.1;Rat;26
6.6.2;Human;30
6.6.3;Other animals;33
6.7;LOW-MOLECULAR-WEIGHT CHROMIUM-BINDING SUBSTANCE (LMWCr);34
6.7.1;Synthetic models;35
6.8;OTHER POTENTIAL CHROMIUM-CONTAINING BIOMOLECULES;35
6.9;DIABETES AND CHROMIUM/CHROMIUM TRANSPORT;35
6.9.1;Adult-onset diabetes and chromium;35
6.9.2;Other conditions resulting in increased urinary Cr loss;37
6.9.3;Chromium transport;37
6.10;CONCLUSION;39
6.11;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;41
6.12;REFERENCES;41
7;Part I. Chromium as a Nutrient and Nutritional Supplement;54
7.1;Chapter 2 Basis for dietary recommendations for chromium;56
7.1.1;INTRODUCTION;56
7.1.2;DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUES FOR CHROMIUM BY AGE AND GENDER;57
7.1.3;BASIS FOR CONSIDERATION OF CHROMIUM AS AN ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT;58
7.1.4;DATA LIMITATIONS FOR ESTABLISHING AN EAR;58
7.1.5;REPORTED CHROMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN FOODS;59
7.1.6;REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES OF EXCLUSIVELY BREAST-FED INFANTS;61
7.1.7;REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES FOR OLDER INFANTS, CHILDREN, AND ADOLESCENTS;61
7.1.8;REPORTED DIETARY CHROMIUM INTAKES OF ADULTS;62
7.1.9;REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES OF THE ELDERLY;62
7.1.10;REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION;63
7.1.11;RESPONSES OF SUBJECTS TO CONTROLLED INTAKES OF CHROMIUM;63
7.1.12;EFFECTS OF VARIOUS DIETARY COMPONENTS ON CHROMIUM ABSORPTION AND EXCRETION;64
7.1.13;EFFECTS OF METABOLIC STATES ON CHROMIUM NEEDS;65
7.1.14;RESEARCH NEEDS;65
7.1.15;REFERENCES;65
7.2;Chapter 3 Multiple hypotheses for chromium(III) biochemistry: Why the essentiality of chromium(III) is still questioned;70
7.2.1;INTRODUCTION;70
7.2.2;DATA NOT CONSISTENT WITH CHROMIUM ESSENTIALITY;71
7.2.2.1;Total parenteral nutrition;71
7.2.2.2;Dietary deficiencies;72
7.2.2.3;Supplementation;72
7.2.3;THE CHROMIUM GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR;72
7.2.4;THE LMWCr-BINDING PROTEIN;73
7.2.4.1;Structural characterization of LMWCr;73
7.2.4.2;Functional characterization of LMWCr;75
7.2.5;RELATION OF CHROMIUM METABOLISM TO IRON METABOLISM;76
7.2.6;HORMESIS;77
7.2.7;CONCLUSIONS;78
7.2.8;REFERENCES;78
7.3;Chapter 4 Effects of chromium(III) as a nutritional supplement;84
7.3.1;INTRODUCTION;84
7.3.2;EFFECTS OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION ON HUMAN BODY COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL FUNCTIONS;85
7.3.2.1;Untrained Adults;85
7.3.2.2;Body composition and performance in athletes;86
7.3.2.3;Weight loss and maintenance;88
7.3.2.4;Compositional and Functional Effects of Cr(III) Supplementation in Older Adults;90
7.3.3;Cr(III): ANABOLIC OR CATABOLIC?;91
7.3.4;Chromium(III) SUPPLEMENTATION: NUTRITION OR PHARMACOLOGY;91
7.3.5;CONSENSUS ON Cr(III) SUPPLEMENTS FOR WEIGHT REDUCTION, BODY COMPOSITION CHANGE, AND STRENGTH GAIN;92
7.3.6;SOME RESOLUTION TO THE CONTROVERSY;95
7.3.7;CONCLUSION;95
7.3.8;REFERENCES;95
7.4;Chapter 5 Use of chromium as an animal feed supplement;98
7.4.1;INTRODUCTION;98
7.4.2;FACTORS RELATED TO Cr STATUS OF FARM LIVESTOCK;99
7.4.3;SWINE;101
7.4.3.1;Introduction;101
7.4.3.2;Metabolic effects;101
7.4.3.3;Chromium for weanling pigs;102
7.4.3.4;Chromium for growing pigs;104
7.4.3.5;Chromium for reproducing pigs;108
7.4.3.6;Summary for swine;112
7.4.4;CATTLE;112
7.4.4.1;Introduction;112
7.4.4.2;Metabolic effects;112
7.4.4.3;Chromium for young calves;113
7.4.4.4;Chromium for dairy cows;115
7.4.4.5;Summary for cattle;115
7.4.5;POULTRY;115
7.4.5.1;Introduction;115
7.4.5.2;Chromium for broilers (meat birds);116
7.4.5.3;Chromium for laying hens;118
7.4.5.4;Summary;120
7.4.6;SHEEP;121
7.4.6.1;Introduction;121
7.4.6.2;Metabolic effects;121
7.4.6.3;Chromium for growing lambs;121
7.4.6.4;Summary;121
7.4.7;EQUINE;121
7.4.7.1;Introduction;121
7.4.7.2;Metabolic effects;122
7.4.7.3;Chromium for horses;122
7.4.7.4;SUMMARY;123
7.4.7.4.1;Qualitative responses;123
7.4.7.4.2;Quantitative responses;123
7.4.7.4.3;General conclusion;124
7.4.8;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;124
7.4.9;REFERENCES;124
8;Part II. Biochemical Role(s) for Chromium(III);132
8.1;Chapter 6 The transport of chromium(III) in the body: Implications for function;134
8.1.1;ABSORPTION;134
8.1.2;TRANSPORTATION;136
8.1.2.1;Transferrin;136
8.1.2.2;Low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance (chromodulin);138
8.1.3;CHROMIUM TRANSPORT TO ORGANS;139
8.1.4;EXCRETION;143
8.1.5;CHROMIUM–TRANSFERRIN–APO-LMWCR (CHROMODULIN) TRANSPORT MODEL;144
8.1.6;DISCUSSION;146
8.1.7;REFERENCES;146
8.2;Chapter 7 Potential and purported roles for chromium in insulin signaling: The search for the holy grail;152
8.2.1;INTRODUCTION;152
8.2.2;INSULIN SIGNALING;152
8.2.3;LOW-MOLECULAR-WEIGHT CHROMIUM/CHROMODULIN;154
8.2.3.1;Synthetic models;162
8.2.4;DIRECT CHROMIUM BINDING TO INSULIN RECEPTOR;164
8.2.5;AKT;165
8.2.6;CHROMATE;166
8.2.7;CYTOKINES;167
8.2.8;INSULIN RECEPTOR NUMBER;168
8.2.9;CONCLUSION;168
8.2.10;ADDENDUM;168
8.2.11;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;169
8.2.12;REFERENCES;169
9;Part III. Chromium(III) as a Therapeutic Agent;174
9.1;Chapter 8 Clinical effect of chromium supplements on human health;176
9.1.1;INTRODUCTION;176
9.1.2;EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION REPORTED FOR SPECIFIC POPULATIONS;180
9.1.2.1;Individuals with type 1 and 2 diabetes;180
9.1.2.2;Gestational diabetes;182
9.1.2.3;Steroid-induced diabetes;182
9.1.2.4;Individuals with the metabolic syndrome and impaired glucose tolerance;182
9.1.2.5;Individuals without diabetes;184
9.1.2.6;Meta-analysis of reported trials;185
9.1.3;CLINICAL EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION MAY DEPEND ON PHENOTYPE;185
9.1.4;EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION ON BODY WEIGHT AND COMPOSITION;186
9.1.5;EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION ON SERUM LIPIDS;187
9.1.6;CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE RISK;187
9.1.7;CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION AND DEPRESSION;188
9.1.8;SUMMARY;189
9.1.9;REFERENCES;189
9.2;Chapter 9 Benefits of chromium(III) complexes in animal and human health;196
9.2.1;INTRODUCTION;196
9.2.2;CHROMIUM DEFICIENCY AND DISEASES;196
9.2.3;DIETARY SOURCES OF BENEFICIAL CHROMIUM;197
9.2.4;TRIVALENT CHROMIUM, ABSORPTION, AND BIOAVAILABILITY;197
9.2.5;CHROMIUM(III) AND GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR (GTF);199
9.2.6;CHROMIUM(III), DIABETES, AND INSULIN RESPONSE;201
9.2.7;CHROMIUM(III) SUPPLEMENTATION IN LOWERING BLOOD PRESSURE, HYPERTENSION, AND CHOLESTEROL;204
9.2.8;TRIVALENT CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION, SYNDROME X, AND WEIGHT LOSS;210
9.2.9;DIETARY Cr(III) AND FREE RADICAL SCAVENGING ABILITY;213
9.2.10;SAFETY OF CHROMIUM(III) COMPLEXES;214
9.2.11;CONCLUSION;214
9.2.12;REFERENCES;215
10;Part IV. Toxicological Effects of Chromium(III);220
10.1;Chapter 10 Evaluation of chromium(III) genotoxicity with cell culture and in vitro assays;222
10.1.1;REASONS FOR QUESTIONING Cr(III) SUPPLEMENT SAFETY;222
10.1.2;JUSTIFICATION FOR USING CELL CULTURE AND IN VITRO ASSAYS;224
10.1.3;STANDARD CELL CULTURE AND IN VITRO ASSAYS AND GUIDELINES FOR THEIR USE;224
10.1.4;THE AMES TEST;225
10.1.5;THE CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATION ASSAY;226
10.1.6;THE hprt ASSAY;226
10.1.7;THE IN VITRO MOUSE LYMPHOMA ASSAY;227
10.1.8;STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF IN VITRO ASSAYS;227
10.1.9;RESULTS FOR CHROMIUM(III) NICOTINATE;227
10.1.10;RESULTS FOR CHROMIC CHLORIDE;228
10.1.11;RESULTS FOR OTHER Cr(III) SUPPLEMENTS;228
10.1.12;RESULTS FOR Cr(III) PICOLINATE;229
10.1.13;SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS;231
10.1.14;REFERENCES;232
10.2;Chapter 11 Redox chemistry and biological activities of chromium(III) complexes;238
10.2.1;INTRODUCTION;238
10.2.2;FORMATION AND ROLES OF STRONG OXIDANTS IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS;239
10.2.3;OXIDATION OF Cr(III) COMPLEXES UNDER PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS;242
10.2.4;BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF Cr(III) OXIDATION;247
10.2.4.1;Is Cr(III) an antioxidant or a pro-oxidant?;247
10.2.4.2;Damage to DNA and proteins;248
10.2.4.3;Interference with cell signaling;254
10.2.5;OXIDATIVE HYPOTHESIS OF Cr(III) BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY;256
10.2.6;ACKNOWLEDGMENT;259
10.2.7;REFERENCES;259
10.3;Chapter 12 Overview of chromium(III) toxicology;270
10.3.1;INTRODUCTION;270
10.3.2;BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF Cr(III) AND QUESTIONS CONCERNED;271
10.3.3;TOXICOLOGICAL AND CARCINOGENETIC EFFECTS OF Cr(III);272
10.3.4;GENOTOXIC AND MUTAGENETIC EFFECTS OF Cr(III);272
10.3.5;EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF Cr(III);273
10.3.6;CONCLUSIONS;274
10.3.7;REFERENCES;274
10.4;Chapter 13 Summary: The clinical and nutritional importance of chromium – Still debated after 50 years of research;278
10.4.1;INTRODUCTION;278
10.4.2;CHROMIUM(III) AS A NUTRIENT;279
10.4.3;CHROMIUM AS A NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENT;281
10.4.4;BIOCHEMICAL ROLE(S) FOR Cr(III);282
10.4.5;CHROMIUM(III) AS A THERAPEUTIC AGENT;284
10.4.6;TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF Cr(III);286
10.4.7;CONCLUSION;287
10.4.8;REFERENCES;288
11;Index;290