Wallace / Hobbs Atmospheric Science

An Introductory Survey
2. Auflage 2006
ISBN: 978-0-08-049953-6
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 504 Seiten

JOHN M. WALLACE was born in New York in 1940. He received his Bachelor's degree from Webb Institute of Naval Architecture and his PhD from MIT, where he worked closely with Professors Victor P. Starr and Reginald E. Newell. He has been a member of the faculty of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington since 1966. He has served terms as department chair, as Director of the Joint Institute of the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean, and as Co-director of the University of Washington's Program on the Environment. His research interests include large scale atmospheric dynamics and climate variability and change. He regularly teaches an introductory graduate class in which this textbook is used.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Wallace, John M.

Hobbs, Peter V.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Cover;1
2;Contents;8
3;Preface to the Second Edition;12
4;Preface to the First Edition;16
5;Introduction and Overview;18
5.1;Scope of the Subject and Recent Highlights;18
5.2;Some Definitions and Terms of Reference;20
5.3;A Brief Survey of the Atmosphere;23
5.3.1;Optical Properties;23
5.3.2;Mass;24
5.3.3;Chemical Composition;25
5.3.4;Vertical structure;26
5.3.5;Winds;29
5.3.6;Precipitation;36
5.4;What’s Next?;38
5.5;Exercises;39
6;The Earth System;42
6.1;Components of the Earth System;42
6.1.1;The Oceans;42
6.1.2;The Cryosphere;49
6.1.3;The Terrestrial Biosphere;52
6.1.4;The Earth’s Crust and Mantle;54
6.1.5;Roles of Various Components of the Earth System in Climate;55
6.2;The Hydrologic Cycle;55
6.3;The Carbon Cycle;58
6.3.1;Carbon in the Atmosphere;59
6.3.2;Carbon in the Biosphere;59
6.3.3;Carbon in the Oceans;61
6.3.4;Carbon in the Earth’s Crust;61
6.4;Oxygen in the Earth System;62
6.4.1;Sources of Free Oxygen;63
6.5;A Brief History of Climate and the Earth System;65
6.5.1;Formation and Evolution of the Earth System;65
6.5.2;The Past 100 Million Years;68
6.5.3;The Past Million Years;69
6.5.4;The Past 20,000 Years;71
6.6;Earth: The Habitable Planet;73
6.7;Exercises;75
7;Atmospheric Thermodynamics;80
7.1;Gas Laws;80
7.1.1;Virtual Temperature;83
7.2;The Hydrostatic Equation;84
7.2.1;Geopotential;85
7.2.2;Scale Height and the Hypsometric Equation;86
7.2.3;Thickness and Heights of Constant Pressure Surfaces;88
7.2.4;Reduction of Pressure to Sea Level;89
7.3;The First Law of Thermodynamics;89
7.3.1;Joule’s Law;91
7.3.2;Specific Heats;92
7.3.3;Enthalpy;92
7.4;Adiabatic Processes;93
7.4.1;Concept of an Air Parcel;94
7.4.2;The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate;94
7.4.3;Potential Temperature;94
7.4.4;Thermodynamic Diagrams;95
7.5;Water Vapor in Air;96
7.5.1;Moisture Parameters;97
7.5.2;Latent Heats;101
7.5.3;Saturated Adiabatic and Pseudoadiabatic Processes;101
7.5.4;The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate;101
7.5.5;Equivalent Potential Temperature and Wet-Bulb Potential Temperature;102
7.5.6;Normand’s Rule;103
7.5.7;Net Effects of Ascent Followed by Descent;103
7.6;Static Stability;105
7.6.1;Unsaturated Air;105
7.6.2;Saturated Air;108
7.6.3;Conditional and Convective Instability;108
7.7;The Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy;110
7.7.1;The Carnot Cycle;110
7.7.2;Entropy;112
7.7.3;The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation;114
7.7.4;Generalized Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics;117
7.8;Exercises;119
8;Radiative Transfer;130
8.1;The Spectrum of Radiation;130
8.2;Quantitative Description of Radiation;131
8.3;Blackbody Radiation;134
8.3.1;The Planck Function;134
8.3.2;Wien’s Displacement Law;135
8.3.3;The Stefan–Boltzmann Law;136
8.3.4;Radiative Properties of Nonblack Materials;137
8.3.5;Kirchhoff’s Law;138
8.3.6;The Greenhouse Effect;138
8.4;Physics of Scattering and Absorption and Emission;139
8.4.1;Scattering by Air Molecules and Particles;140
8.4.2;Absorption by Particles;143
8.4.3;Absorption and Emission by Gas Molecules;144
8.5;Radiative Transfer in Planetary Atmospheres;147
8.5.1;Beer’s Law;147
8.5.2;Reflection and Absorption by a Layer of the Atmosphere;150
8.5.3;Absorption and Emission of Infrared Radiation in Cloud-Free Air;151
8.5.4;Vertical Profiles of Radiative Heating Rate;155
8.5.5;Passive Remote Sensing by Satellites;156
8.6;Radiation Balance at the Top of the Atmosphere;161
8.7;Exercises;162
9;Atmospheric Chemistry;170
9.1;Composition of Tropospheric Air;170
9.2;Sources, Transport, and Sinks of Trace Gases;174
9.2.1;Sources;174
9.2.2;Transport;177
9.2.3;Sinks;179
9.3;Some Important Tropospheric Trace Gases;179
9.3.1;The Hydroxyl Radical;179
9.3.2;Some Reactive Nitrogen Compounds;180
9.3.3;Organic Compounds;181
9.3.4;Carbon Monoxide;182
9.3.5;Ozone;182
9.3.6;Hydrogen Compounds;185
9.3.7;Sulfur Gases;185
9.4;Tropospheric Aerosols;186
9.4.1;Sources;187
9.4.2;Chemical Composition;189
9.4.3;Transport;190
9.4.4;Sinks;190
9.4.5;Concentrations and Size Distributions;191
9.4.6;Residence Times;193
9.5;Air Pollution;193
9.5.1;Some Sources of Pollutants;194
9.5.2;Smogs;196
9.5.3;Regional and Global Pollution;198
9.6;Tropospheric Chemical Cycles;199
9.6.1;The Nitrogen Cycle;199
9.6.2;The Sulfur Cycle;200
9.7;Stratospheric Chemistry;201
9.7.1;Unperturbed Stratospheric Ozone;202
9.7.2;Anthropogenic Perturbations to Stratospheric Ozone: The Ozone Hole;207
9.7.3;Stratospheric Aerosols; Sulfur in the Stratosphere;213
9.8;Exercises;215
10;Cloud Microphysics;226
10.1;Nucleation of Water Vapor Condensation;226
10.1.1;Theory;227
10.1.2;Cloud Condensation Nuclei;231
10.2;Microstructures of Warm Clouds;232
10.3;Cloud Liquid Water Content and Entrainment;235
10.4;Growth of Cloud Droplets in Warm Clouds;238
10.4.1;Growth by Condensation;238
10.4.2;Growth by Collection;241
10.4.3;Bridging the Gap between Droplet Growth by Condensation and Collision–Coalescence;245
10.5;Microphysics of Cold Clouds;249
10.5.1;Nucleation of Ice Particles; Ice Nuclei;249
10.5.2;Concentrations of Ice Particles in Clouds; Ice Multiplication;253
10.5.3;Growth of Ice Particles in Clouds;255
10.5.4;Formation of Precipitation in Cold Clouds;260
10.5.5;Classification of Solid Precipitation;262
10.6;Artificial Modification of Clouds and Precipitation;262
10.6.1;Modification of Warm Clouds;262
10.6.2;Modification of Cold Clouds;264
10.6.3;Inadvertent Modification;267
10.7;Thunderstorm Electrification;269
10.7.1;Charge Generation;269
10.7.2;Lightning and Thunder;271
10.7.3;The Global Electrical Circuit;273
10.8;Cloud and Precipitation Chemistry;276
10.8.1;Overview;276
10.8.2;Transport of Particles and Gases;276
10.8.3;Nucleation Scavenging;277
10.8.4;Dissolution of Gases in Cloud Droplets;277
10.8.5;Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions;278
10.8.6;Precipitation Scavenging;278
10.8.7;Sources of Sulfate in Precipitation;279
10.8.8;Chemical Composition of Rain;279
10.8.9;Production of Aerosol by Clouds;279
10.9;Exercises;280
11;Atmospheric Dynamics;288
11.1;Kinematics of the Large-Scale Horizontal Flow;288
11.1.1;Elementary Kinematic Properties of the Flow;288
11.1.2;Vorticity and Divergence;289
11.1.3;Deformation;291
11.1.4;Streamlines versus Trajectories;292
11.2;Dynamics of Horizontal Flow;293
11.2.1;Apparent Forces;293
11.2.2;Real Forces;296
11.2.3;The Horizontal Equation of Motion;297
11.2.4;The Geostrophic Wind;298
11.2.5;The Effect of Friction;298
11.2.6;The Gradient Wind;299
11.2.7;The Thermal Wind;300
11.2.8;Suppression of Vertical Motions by Planetary Rotation;303
11.2.9;A Conservation Law for Vorticity;303
11.2.10;Potential Vorticity;306
11.3;Primitive Equations;307
11.3.1;Pressure as a Vertical Coordinate;308
11.3.2;Hydrostatic Balance;308
11.3.3;The Thermodynamic Energy Equation;308
11.3.4;Inference of the Vertical Motion Field;310
11.3.5;Solution of the Primitive Equations;312
11.3.6;An Application of Primitive Equations;313
11.4;The Atmospheric General Circulation;314
11.4.1;The Kinetic Energy Cycle;315
11.4.2;The Atmosphere as a Heat Engine;317
11.5;Numerical Weather Prediction;317
11.6;Exercises;321
12;Weather Systems;330
12.1;Extratropical Cyclones;330
12.1.1;An Overview;330
12.1.2;Fronts and Surface Weather;335
12.1.3;Vertical Structure;345
12.1.4;Air Trajectories;351
12.1.5;In Search of the Perfect Storm;353
12.1.6;Top–Down Influences;354
12.1.7;Influence of Latent Heat Release;355
12.2;Orographic Effects;357
12.2.1;Lee Cyclogenesis and Lee Troughing;357
12.2.2;Rossby Wave Propagation along Sloping Terrain;357
12.2.3;Cold Air Damming;358
12.2.4;Terrain-Induced Windstorms;359
12.2.5;Orographic Influences on Precipitation;360
12.3;Deep Convection;361
12.3.1;Environmental Controls;362
12.3.2;Structure and Evolution of Convective Storms;366
12.3.3;Damaging Winds Associated with Convective Storms;373
12.3.4;Mesoscale Convective Systems;380
12.4;Tropical Cyclones;383
12.4.1;Structure, Thermodynamics, and Dynamics;383
12.4.2;Genesis and Life Cycle;386
12.4.3;Storm Surges;387
12.5;Exercises;388
13;The Atmospheric Boundary Layer;392
13.1;Turbulence;393
13.1.1;Eddies and Thermals;393
13.1.2;Statistical Description of Turbulence;395
13.1.3;Turbulence Kinetic Energy and Turbulence Intensity;396
13.1.4;Turbulent Transport and Fluxes;398
13.1.5;Turbulence Closure;399
13.1.6;Turbulence Scales and Similarity Theory;400
13.2;The Surface Energy Balance;402
13.2.1;Radiative Fluxes;402
13.2.2;Surface Energy Balance over Land;403
13.2.3;The Bulk Aerodynamic Formulae;404
13.2.4;The Global Surface Energy Balance;407
13.3;Vertical Structure;408
13.3.1;Temperature;408
13.3.2;Humidity;409
13.3.3;Winds;410
13.3.4;Day-to-Day and Regional Variations in Boundary-Layer Structure;412
13.3.5;Nonlocal Influence of Stratification on Turbulence and Stability;413
13.4;Evolution;415
13.4.1;Entrainment;415
13.4.2;Boundary-Layer Growth;416
13.4.3;Cloud-Topped Boundary Layer over Land;418
13.4.4;The Marine Boundary Layer;418
13.4.5;Stormy Weather;421
13.5;Special Effects;421
13.5.1;Terrain Effects;421
13.5.2;Sea Breezes;425
13.5.3;Forest Canopy Effects;427
13.5.4;Urban Effects;428
13.6;Boundary Layer in Context;428
13.7;Exercises;430
14;Climate Dynamics;436
14.1;The Present-Day Climate;436
14.1.1;Annual Mean Conditions;436
14.1.2;Dependence on Time of Day;439
14.1.3;Seasonal Dependence;440
14.2;Climate Variability;442
14.2.1;Internally Generated Climate Variability;446
14.2.2;Coupled Climate Variability;448
14.2.3;Externally Forced Climate Variability;456
14.3;Climate Equilibria, Sensitivity, and Feedbacks;460
14.3.1;Transient versus Equilibrium Response;463
14.3.2;Climate Feedbacks;464
14.4;Greenhouse Warming;468
14.4.1;The Buildup of Greenhouse Gases;468
14.4.2;Is Human-Induced Greenhouse Warming Already Evident?;472
14.4.3;Projections of Future Human-Induced Greenhouse Warming;474
14.5;Climate Monitoring and Prediction;475
14.6;Exercises;477
15;Constants and Conversions for Atmospheric Science;484
16;Abbreviations Used in Captions;486
17;Index;488