Buch, Englisch, 576 Seiten, Format (B × H): 193 mm x 249 mm, Gewicht: 1134 g
Buch, Englisch, 576 Seiten, Format (B × H): 193 mm x 249 mm, Gewicht: 1134 g
Reihe: Wiley Series in Renewable Resources
ISBN: 978-0-470-97202-1
Verlag: Wiley
Plant biomass is attracting increasing attention as a sustainable resource for large-scale production of renewable fuels and chemicals. However, in order to successfully compete with petroleum, it is vital that biomass conversion processes are designed to minimize costs and maximize yields. Advances in pretreatment technology are critical in order to develop high-yielding, cost-competitive routes to renewable fuels and chemicals.
Aqueous Pretreatment of Plant Biomass for Biological and Chemical Conversion to Fuels and Chemicals presents a comprehensive overview of the currently available aqueous pretreatment technologies for cellulosic biomass, highlighting the fundamental chemistry and biology of each method, key attributes and limitations, and opportunities for future advances.
Topics covered include:
• The importance of biomass conversion to fuels
• The role of pretreatment in biological and chemical conversion of biomass
• Composition and structure of biomass, and recalcitrance to conversion
• Fundamentals of biomass pretreatment at low, neutral and high pH
• Ionic liquid and organosolv pretreatments to fractionate biomass
• Comparative data for application of leading pretreatments and effect of enzyme formulations
• Physical and chemical features of pretreated biomass
• Economics of pretreatment for biological processing
• Methods of analysis and enzymatic conversion of biomass streams
• Experimental pretreatment systems from multiwell plates to pilot plant operations
This comprehensive reference book provides an authoritative source of information on the pretreatment of cellulosic biomass to aid those experienced in the field to access the most current information on the topic. It will also be invaluable to those entering the growing field of biomass conversion.
Autoren/Hrsg.
Fachgebiete
- Technische Wissenschaften Energietechnik | Elektrotechnik Biogasanlagen, Energie aus Biomasse
- Technische Wissenschaften Verfahrenstechnik | Chemieingenieurwesen | Biotechnologie Brennstoffe, Kraftstoffe, Explosivstoffe
- Technische Wissenschaften Verfahrenstechnik | Chemieingenieurwesen | Biotechnologie Biotechnologie Industrielle Biotechnologie
Weitere Infos & Material
List of Contributors xvii
Foreword xxi
Series Preface xxiii
Preface xxv
Acknowledgements xxvii
1 Introduction 1
Charles E. Wyman
1.1 Cellulosic Biomass: What and Why? 2
1.2 Aqueous Processing of Cellulosic Biomass into Organic Fuels and Chemicals 3
1.3 Attributes for Successful Pretreatment 5
1.4 Pretreatment Options 7
1.5 Possible Blind Spots in the Historic Pretreatment Paradigm 8
1.6 Other Distinguishing Features of Pretreatment Technologies 9
1.7 Book Approach 9
1.8 Overview of Book Chapters 10
Acknowledgements 10
References 11
2 Cellulosic Biofuels: Importance, Recalcitrance, and Pretreatment 17
Lee Lynd and Mark Laser
2.1 Our Place in History 17
2.2 The Need for Energy from Biomass 17
2.3 The Importance of Cellulosic Biomass 18
2.4 Potential Barriers 18
2.5 Biological and Thermochemical Approaches to the Recalcitrance Barrier 19
2.6 Pretreatment 20
Acknowledgements 21
References 21
3 Plant Cell Walls: Basics of Structure, Chemistry, Accessibility and the Influence on Conversion 23
Brian H. Davison, Jerry Parks, Mark F. Davis and Bryon S. Donohoe
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Biomass Diversity Leads to Variability in Cell-wall Structure and Composition 24
3.3 Processing Options for Accessing the Energy in the Lignocellulosic Matrix 26
3.4 Plant Tissue and Cell Types Respond Differently to Biomass Conversion 28
3.5 The Basics of Plant Cell-wall Structure 29
3.6 Cell-wall Surfaces and Multilamellar Architecture 30
3.7 Cell-wall Ultrastructure and Nanoporosity 31
3.8 Computer Simulation in Understanding Biomass Recalcitrance 32
3.8.1 What Can We Learn from Molecular Simulation? 32
3.8.2 Simulations of Lignin 33
3.8.3 Simulations of Cellulose 34
3.8.4 Simulation of Lignocellulosic Biomass 35
3.8.5 Outlook for Biomass Simulations 35
3.9 Summary 35
Acknowledgements 36
References 36
4 Biological Conversion of Plants to Fuels and Chemicals and the Effects of Inhibitors 39
Eduardo Ximenes, Youngmi Kim and Michael R. Ladisch
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Overview of Biological Conversion 40
4.3 Enzyme and Ethanol Fermentation Inhibitors Released during Pretreatment and/or Enzyme Hydrolysis 42
4.3.1 Enzyme Inhibitors Derived from Plant Cell-wall Constituents (Lignin, Soluble Phenolics, and Hemicellulose) 43
4.3.2 Effect of Furfurals and Acetic Acid as Inhibitors of Ethanol Fermentations 48
4.4 Hydrolysis of Pentose Sugar Oligomers Using Solid-acid Catalysts 50
4.4.1 Application of Solid-acid Catalysts for Hydrolysis of Sugar Oligomers Derived from Lignocelluloses 50
4.4.2 Factors Affecting Efficiency of Solid-acid-catalyzed Hydrolysis 51
4.5 Conclusions 56
Acknowledgements 57
References 57
5 Catalytic Strategies for Converting Lignocellulosic Carbohydrates to Fuels and Chemicals 61
Jesse Q. Bond, David Martin Alonso and James A. Dumesic
5.1 Introduction 61
5.2 Biomass Conversion Strategies 62
5.3 Criteria for Fuels and Chemicals 64
5.3.1 General Considerations in the Production of Fuels and Fuel Additives 64
5.3.2 Consideration for Specialty Chemicals 66
5.4 Primary Feedstocks and Platforms 66
5.4.1 Cellulose 66
5.4.2 Hemicellulose 67
5.5 Sugar Conversion and Key Intermediates 68
5.5.1 Sugar Oxidation 69
5.5.2 Sugar Reduction (Polyol Production) 70
5.5.3 Sugar Dehydration (Furan Production) 77
5.6 Conclusions 91
Acknowledgements 92
References 92
6 Fundamentals of Biomass Pretreatment at Low pH 103
Heather L. Trajano and Charles E. Wyman
6.1 Introduction 103
6.2 Effects of Low pH on Biomass Solids 104
6.2.1 Cellulose 104
6.2.2 Hemicellulose 105
6.2.3 Lignin 106
6.2.4 Ash 107
6.2.5 Ultrastructure 107
6.2.6 Summary of Effects of Low pH on Biomass Solids 108
6.3 Pretreatment in Support of Biological Conversion 108
6.3.1 Hydrolysis of Cellulose to Fermentable Glucose 108
6.3.2 Pretreatment for Improved Enzymatic Digestibility 109
6.3.3 Pretreatment for Improved Enzymatic Digestibility and Hemicellulose Sugar Recovery 110
6.4 Low-pH Hydrolysis of Cellulose and Hemicellulose 114
6.4.1 Furfural 114
6.4.2 Levulinic Acid 115
6.4.3 Drop-in Hydrocarbons 115
6.5 Models of Low-pH Biomass Reactions 116
6.5.1 Cellulose Hydrolysis 117
6.5.2 Hemicellulose Hydrolysis 118
6.5.3 Summary of Kinetic Models 120
6.6 Conclusions 122
Acknowledgements 123
References 123
7 Fundamentals of Aqueous Pretreatment of Biomass 129
Nathan S. Mosier
7.1 Introduction 129
7.2 Self-ionization of Water Catalyzes Plant Cell-wall Depolymerization 130
7.3 Products from the Hydrolysis of the Plant Cell Wall Contribute to Further Depolymerization 131
7.4 Mechanisms of Aqueous Pretreatment 131
7.4.1 Hemicellulose 131
7.4.2 Lignin 134
7.4.3 Cellulose 136
7.5 Impact of Aqueous Pretreatment on Cellulose Digestibility 137
7.6 Practical Applications of Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment 138
7.7 Conclusions 140
References 140
8 Fundamentals of Biomass Pretreatment at High pH 145
Rocio Sierra Ramirez, Mark Holtzapple and Natalia Piamonte
8.1 Introduction 145
8.2 Chemical Effects of Alkaline Pretreatments on Biomass Composition 146
8.2.1 Non-oxidative Delignification 147
8.2.2 Non-oxidative Sugar Degradation 148
8.2.3 Oxidative Delignification 150
8.2.4 Oxidative Sugar Degradation 151
8.3 Ammonia Pretreatments 153
8.4 Sodium Hydroxide Pretreatments 155
8.5 Alkaline Wet Oxidation 155
8.6 Lime Pretreatment 158
8.7 Pretreatment Severity 161
8.8 Pretreatment Selectivity 161
8.9 Concluding Remarks 163
References 163
9 Primer on Ammonia Fiber Expansion Pretreatment 169
S.P.S. Chundawat, B. Bals, T. Campbell, L. Sousa, D. Gao, M. Jin, P. Eranki, R. Garlock, F. Teymouri, V. Balan and B.E. Dale
9.1 Historical Perspective of Ammonia-based Pretreatments 169
9.2 Overview of AFEX and its Physicochemical Impacts 170
9.3 Enzymatic and Microbial Activity on AFEX-treated Biomass 175
9.3.1 Impact of AFEX Pretreatment on Cellulase Binding to Biomass 175
9.3.2 Enzymatic Digestibility of AFEX-treated Biomass 176
9.3.3 Microbial Fermentability of AFEX-treated Biomass 178
9.4 Transgenic Plants and AFEX Pretreatment 183
9.5 Recent Research Developments on AFEX Strategies and Reactor Configurations 185
9.5.1 Non-extractive AFEX Systems 185
9.5.2 Extractive AFEX Systems 186
9.5.3 Fluidized Gaseous AFEX Systems 186
9.6 Perspectives on AFEX Commercialization 186
9.6.1 AFEX Pretreatment Commercialization in Cellulosic Biorefineries 186
9.6.2 Novel Value-added Products from AFEX-related Processes 190
9.6.3 AFEX-centric Regional Biomass Processing Depot 192
9.7 Environmental and Life-cycle Analyses for AFEX-centric Processes 193
9.8 Conclusions 194
Acknowledgements 195
References 195
10 Fundamentals of Biomass Pretreatment by Fractionation 201
Poulomi Sannigrahi and Arthur J. Ragauskas
10.1 Introduction 201
10.2 Organosolv Pretreatment 202
10.2.1 Organosolv Pulping 202
10.2.2 Overview of Organosolv Pretreatment 202
10.2.3 Solvents and Catalysts for Organosolv Pretreatment 203
10.2.4 Fractionation of Biomass during Organosolv Pretreatment 209
10.3 Nature of Organosolv Lignin and Chemistry of Organosolv Delignification 210
10.3.1 Composition and Structure of Organosolv Lignin 210
10.3.2 Mechanisms of Organosolv Delignification 213
10.3.3 Commercial Applications of Organosolv Lignin 214
10.4 Structural and Compositional Characteristics of Cellulose 214
10.5 Co-products of Biomass Fractionation by Organosolv Pretreatment 216
10.5.1 Hemicellulose 216
10.5.2 Furfural 217
10.5.3 Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 218
10.5.4 Levulinic Acid 218
10.5.5 Acetic Acid 219
10.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 219
Acknowledgements 219
References 219
11 Ionic Liquid Pretreatment: Mechanism, Performance, and Challenges 223
Seema Singh and Blake A. Simmons
11.1 Introduction 223
11.2 Ionic Liquid Pretreatment: Mechanism 225
11.2.1 IL Polarity and Kamlet–Taft Parameters 226
11.2.2 Interactions between ILs and Cellulose 226
11.2.3 Interactions between ILs and Lignin 227
11.3 Ionic Liquid Biomass Pretreatment: Enzymatic Route 228
11.3.1 Grasses 228
11.3.2 Agricultural Residues 230
11.3.3 Woody Biomass 230
11.4 Ionic Liquid Pretreatment: Catalytic Route 231
11.4.1 Acid-catalyzed Hydrolysis 232
11.4.2 Metal-catalyzed Hydrolysis 232
11.5 Factors Impacting Scalability and Cost of Ionic Liquid Pretreatment 233
11.6 Concluding Remarks 234
Acknowledgements 234
References 234
12 Comparative Performance of Leading Pretreatment Technologies for Biological Conversion of Corn Stover, Poplar Wood, and Switchgrass to Sugars 239
Charles E. Wyman, Bruce E. Dale, Venkatesh Balan, Richard T. Elander, Mark T. Holtzapple, Rocio Sierra Ramirez, Michael R. Ladisch, Nathan Mosier, Y.Y. Lee, Rajesh Gupta, Steven R. Thomas, Bonnie R. Hames, Ryan Warner and Rajeev Kumar
12.1 Introduction 240
12.2 Materials and Methods 242
12.2.1 Feedstocks 242
12.2.2 Enzymes 243
12.2.3 CAFI Pretreatments 243
12.2.4 Material Balances 244
12.2.5 Free Sugars and Extraction 244
12.3 Yields of Xylose and Glucose from Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis 245
12.3.1 Yields from Corn Stover 245
12.3.2 Yields from Standard Poplar 247
12.3.3 Yields from Dacotah Switchgrass 248
12.4 Impact of Changes in Biomass Sources 249
12.5 Compositions of Solids Following CAFI Pretreatments 251
12.5.1 Composition of Pretreated Corn Stover Solids 252
12.5.2 Composition of Pretreated Switchgrass Solids 252
12.5.3 Composition of Pretreated Poplar Solids 253
12.5.4 Overall Trends in Composition of Pretreated Biomass Solids and Impact on Enzymatic Hydrolysis 253
12.6 Pretreatment Conditions to Maximize Total Glucose Plus Xylose Yields 254
12.7 Implications of the CAFI Results 255
12.8 Closing Thoughts 256
Acknowledgements 257
References 258
13 Effects of Enzyme Formulation and Loadings on Conversion of Biomass Pretreated by Leading Technologies 261
Rajesh Gupta and Y.Y. Lee
13.1 Introduction 261
13.2 Synergism among Cellulolytic Enzymes 262
13.3 Hemicellulose Structure and Hemicellulolytic Enzymes 263
13.4 Substrate Characteristics and Enzymatic Hydrolysis 264
13.5 Xylanase Supplementation for Different Pretreated Biomass and Effect of b-Xylosidase 265
13.6 Effect of b-Glucosidase Supplementation 269
13.7 Effect of Pectinase Addition 269
13.8 Effect of Feruloyl Esterase and Acetyl Xylan Esterase Addition 270
13.9 Effect of a-L-arabinofuranosidase and Mannanase Addition 270
13.10 Use of Lignin-degrading Enzymes (LDE) 271
13.11 Effect of Inactive Components on Biomass Hydrolysis 271
13.12 Adsorption and Accessibility of Enzyme with Different Cellulosic Substrates 271
13.13 Tuning Enzyme Formulations to the Feedstock 272
13.14 Summary 273
References 274
14 Physical and Chemical Features of Pretreated Biomass that Influence Macro-/Micro-accessibility and Biological Processing 281
Rajeev Kumar and Charles E. Wyman
14.1 Introduction 281
14.2 Definitions of Macro-/Micro-accessibility and Effectiveness 283
14.3 Features Influencing Macro-accessibility and their Impacts on Enzyme Effectiveness 284
14.3.1 Lignin 284
14.3.2 Hemicellulose 286
14.4 Features Influencing Micro-accessibility and their Impact on Enzymes Effectiveness 289
14.4.1 Cellulose Crystallinity (Structure) 289
14.4.2 Cellulose Chain Length/Reducing Ends 291
14.5 Concluding Remarks 293
Acknowledgements 296
References 296
15 Economics of Pretreatment for Biological Processing 311
Ling Tao, Andy Aden and Richard T. Elander
15.1 Introduction 311
15.2 Importance of Pretreatment 311
15.3 History of Pretreatment Economic Analysis 313
15.4 Methodologies for Economic Assessment 314
15.5 Overview of Pretreatment Technologies 315
15.5.1 Acidic Pretreatments 315
15.5.2 Alkaline Pretreatments 315
15.5.3 Solvent-based Pretreatments 316
15.6 Comparative Pretreatment Economics 316
15.6.1 Modeling Basis and Assumptions for Comparative CAFI Analysis 317
15.6.2 CAFI Project Comparative Data 320
15.6.3 Reactor Design and Costing Data 320
15.6.4 Comparison of Sugar and Ethanol Yields 324
15.6.5 Comparison of Pretreatment Capital Costs 325
15.6.6 Comparison of MESP 326
15.7 Impact of Key Variables on Pretreatment Economics 327
15.7.1 Yield 327
15.7.2 Conversion to Oligomers/Monomers (Shift of Burden between Enzymes and Pretreatment) 328
15.7.3 Biomass Loading/Concentration 328
15.7.4 Chemical Loading/Recovery/Metallurgy 329
15.7.5 Reaction Conditions: Pressure, Temperature, Residence Time 330
15.7.6 Reactor Orientation: Horizontal/Vertical 330
15.7.7 Batch versus Continuous Processing 330
15.8 Future Needs for Evaluation of Pretreatment Economics 331
15.9 Conclusions 332
Acknowledgements 332
References 332
16 Progress in the Summative Analysis of Biomass Feedstocks for Biofuels Production 335
F.A. Agblevor and J. Pereira
16.1 Introduction 335
16.2 Preparation of Biomass Feedstocks for Analysis 337
16.3 Determination of Non-structural Components of Biomass Feedstocks 338
16.3.1 Moisture Content of Biomass Feedstocks 338
16.3.2 Determination of Ash in Biomass 338
16.3.3 Protein Content of Biomass 338
16.3.4 Extractives Content of Biomass 339
16.4 Quantitative Determination of Lignin Content of Biomass 340
16.5 Quantitative Analysis of Sugars in Lignocellulosic Biomass 342
16.5.1 Holocellulose Content of Plant Cell Walls 342
16.5.2 Monoethanolamine Method for Cellulose Determination 343
16.6 Chemical Hydrolysis of Biomass Polysaccharides 343
16.6.1 Mineral Acid Hydrolysis 343
16.6.2 Trifluoroacetic Acid (TFA) 344
16.6.3 Methanolysis 344
16.7 Analysis of Monosaccharides 345
16.7.1 Colorimetric Analysis of Biomass Monosaccharides 345
16.7.2 Gas Chromatographic Sugar Analysis 345
16.8 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) 347
16.9 High-performance Liquid Chromatographic Sugar Analysis 347
16.10 NMR Analysis of Biomass Sugars 349
16.11 Conclusions 349
References 349
17 High-throughput NIR Analysis of Biomass Pretreatment Streams 355
Bonnie R. Hames
17.1 Introduction 355
17.2 Rapid Analysis Essentials 356
17.2.1 Rapid Spectroscopic Techniques 357
17.2.2 Calibration and Validation Samples 358
17.2.3 Quality Calibration Data for Each Calibration Sample 359
17.2.4 Multivariate Analysis to Resolve Complex Sample Spectra 362
17.2.5 Validation of New Methods 364
17.2.6 Standard Reference Materials and Protocols for Ongoing QA/QC 364
17.3 Summary 366
References 367
18 Plant Biomass Characterization: Application of Solution- and Solid-state NMR Spectroscopy 369
Yunqiao Pu, Bassem Hallac and Arthur J. Ragauskas
18.1 Introduction 369
18.2 Plant Biomass Constituents 370
18.3 Solution-state NMR Characterization of Lignin 371
18.3.1 Lignin Sample Preparation 372
18.3.2 1 H NMR Spectroscopy 372
18.3.3 13 c NMR Spectroscopy 372
18.3.4 HSQC Correlation Spectroscopy 375
18.3.5 31 P NMR Spectroscopy 377
18.4 Solid-state NMR Characterization of Plant Cellulose 381
18.4.1 CP/MAS 13 C NMR Analysis of Cellulose 381
18.4.2 Cellulose Crystallinity 383
18.4.3 Cellulose Ultrastructure 385
18.5 Future Perspectives 387
Acknowledgements 387
References 387
19 Xylooligosaccharides Production, Quantification, and Characterization in Context of Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment 391
Qing Qing, Hongjia Li, Rajeev Kumar and Charles E. Wyman
19.1 Introduction 391
19.1.1 Definition of Oligosaccharides 391
19.1.2 Types of Oligosaccharides Released during Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment 392
19.1.3 The Importance of Measuring Xylooligosaccharides 392
19.2 Xylooligosaccharides Production 394
19.2.1 Thermochemical Production of XOs 394
19.2.2 Production of XOs by Enzymatic Hydrolysis 396
19.3 Xylooligosaccharides Separation and Purification 397
19.3.1 Solvent Extraction 397
19.3.2 Adsorption by Surface Active Materials 397
19.3.3 Chromatographic Separation Techniques 398
19.3.4 Membrane Separation 399
19.3.5 Centrifugal Partition Chromatography 401
19.4 Characterization and Quantification of Xylooligosaccharides 402
19.4.1 Measuring Xylooligosaccharides by Quantification of Reducing Ends 402
19.4.2 Characterizing Xylooligosaccharides Composition 402
19.4.3 Direct Characterization of Different DP Xylooligosaccharides 403
19.4.4 Determining Detailed Structures of Oligosaccharides by MS and NMR 408
19.5 Concluding Remarks 408
Acknowledgements 409
References 410
20 Experimental Pretreatment Systems from Laboratory to Pilot Scale 417
Richard T. Elander
20.1 Introduction 417
20.2 Laboratory-scale Pretreatment Equipment 421
20.2.1 Heating and Cooling Capability 421
20.2.2 Contacting of Biomass Particles with Water and/or Pretreatment Chemicals 421
20.2.3 Mass and Heat Transfer 422
20.2.4 Proper Materials of Construction 423
20.2.5 Instrumentation and Control Systems 424
20.2.6 Translating to Pilot-scale Pretreatment Systems 424
20.3 Pilot-scale Batch Pretreatment Equipment 424
20.4 Pilot-scale Continuous Pretreatment Equipment 427
20.4.1 Feedstock Handling and Size Reduction 427
20.4.2 Pretreatment Chemical and Water Addition 429
20.4.3 Pressurized Continuous Pretreatment Feeder Equipment 432
20.4.4 Pretreatment Reactor Throughput and Residence Time Control 436
20.4.5 Reactor Discharge Devices 438
20.4.6 Blow-down Vessel and Flash Vapor Recovery 438
20.5 Continuous Pilot-scale Pretreatment Reactor Systems 439
20.5.1 Historical Development of Pilot-scale Reactor Systems 439
20.5.2 NREL Gravity-flow Reactor Systems 441
20.6 Summary 445
Acknowledgements 446
References 447
21 Experimental Enzymatic Hydrolysis Systems 451
Todd Lloyd and Chaogang Liu
21.1 Introduction 451
21.2 Cellulases 452
21.2.1 Endoglucanase 452
21.2.2 Cellobiohydrolase 453
21.2.3 b-glucosidase 453
21.3 Hemicellulases 453
21.4 Kinetics of Enzymatic Hydrolysis 454
21.4.1 Empirical Models 455
21.4.2 Michaelis–Menten-based Models 455
21.4.3 Adsorption in Cellulose Hydrolysis Models 456
21.4.4 Rate Limitations and Decreasing Rates with Increasing Conversion 457
21.4.5 Summary of Enzyme Reaction Kinetics 459
21.5 Experimental Hydrolysis Systems 460
21.5.1 Laboratory Protocols 460
21.5.2 Considerations for Scale-up of Hydrolysis Processes 463
21.6 Conclusion 465
References 465
22 High-throughput Pretreatment and Hydrolysis Systems for Screening Biomass Species in Aqueous Pretreatment of Plant Biomass 471
Jaclyn DeMartini and Charles E. Wyman
22.1 Introduction: The Need for High-throughput Technologies 471
22.2 Previous High-throughput Systems and Application to Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis 472
22.3 Current HTPH Systems 473
22.4 Key Steps in HTPH Systems 478
22.4.1 Material Preparation 478
22.4.2 Material Distribution 479
22.4.3 Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis 480
22.4.4 Sample Analysis 481
22.5 HTPH Philosophy, Difficulties, and Limitations 482
22.6 Examples of Research Enabled by HTPH Systems 484
22.7 Future Applications 485
22.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 485
References 486
23 Laboratory Pretreatment Systems to Understand Biomass Deconstruction 489
Bin Yang and Melvin Tucker
23.1 Introduction 489
23.2 Laboratory-scale Batch Reactors 491
23.2.1 Sealed Glass Reactors 491
23.2.2 Tubular Reactors 492
23.2.3 Mixed Reactors 495
23.2.4 Zipperclave 496
23.2.5 Microwave Reactors 497
23.2.6 Steam Reactors 499
23.3 Laboratory-scale Continuous Pretreatment Reactors 501
23.4 Deconstruction of Biomass with Bench-Scale Pretreatment Systems 503
23.5 Heat and Mass Transfer 505
23.5.1 Mass Transfer 506
23.5.2 Direct and Indirect Heating 506
23.6 Biomass Handling and Comminuting 508
23.7 Construction Materials 508
23.7.1 Overall Considerations 508
23.7.2 Materials of Construction 509
23.8 Criteria of Reactor Selection and Applications 510
23.8.1 Effect of High/Low Solids Concentration on Reactor Choices 510
23.8.2 Role of Heat-up and Cool-down Rates in Laboratory Reactor Selection 510
23.8.3 Effect of Mixing and Catalyst Impregnation on Reactor Design 510
23.8.4 High Temperatures and Short Residence Times Result in High Yields 511
23.8.5 Pretreatment Severity: Tradeoffs of Time and Temperature 511
23.8.6 Minimizing Construction and Operating Costs 512
23.9 Summary 513
Acknowledgements 514
References 514
Index 523
