McKenna / Hearle / O'Hear Handbook of Fibre Rope Technology

1. Auflage 2004
ISBN: 978-1-85573-993-2
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 432 Seiten

Reihe: Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles

The field of fibre rope technology has witnessed incredible change and technological advance over the last few decades. At the forefront of this change has been the development of synthetic fibres and modern types of rope construction. This handbook updates the history and structural mechanics of fibre rope technology and describes the types and properties of modern rope-making materials and constructions.Following an introduction to fibre ropes, the Handbook of fibre rope technology takes a comprehensive look at rope-making materials, rope structures, properties and mechanics and covers rope production, focusing on laid strand, braided, low-twist and parallel yarn ropes. Terminations are also introduced and the many uses of rope are illustrated. The key issues surrounding the inspection and retirement of rope are identified and rope testing is thoroughly examined. The final two chapters review rope markets, distribution and liability and provide case studies from the many environments in which fibre rope is used.The Handbook of fibre rope technology is an essential reference for everyone assisting in the design, selection, use, inspection and testing of fibre rope. - A comprehensive look at rope-making materials and structures, properties and mechanics - Covers rope production including laid strand, braided, low-twist and parallel yarn ropes and rope terminations - Rope testing is examined in depth, as well as the key issues surrounding rope retirement

Henry McKenna is President of Tension Technology International which is based in the USA and UK. He has extensive experience in rope manufacturing techniques, technology of fibre materials, rope handling machinery and systems design, accident investigations and industry sales and distribution.

Autoren/Hrsg.

McKenna, H A

Hearle, J. W. S.

O'Hear, N.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Food Authenticity and Traceability;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Table of Contents;6
5;Contributor contact details;14
6;The Humber Institute of Food & Fisheries;19
7;Part I: Methods for authentication and traceablity;20
7.1;Chapter
1. Advanced PCR techniques in identifying food components;22
7.1.1;1.1 Introduction;22
7.1.2;1.2 Qualitative and quantitative PCR techniques;25
7.1.3;1.3 Method validation;33
7.1.4;1.4 Advanced PCR techniques;34
7.1.5;1.5 Applying PCR techniques: identifying genetically modified organisms in food;37
7.1.6;1.6 Applying PCR techniques: molecular markers and identification of cultivar or breed;41
7.1.7;1.7 Future trends: PCR and identity preservation of foods;48
7.1.8;1.8 References;49
7.1.9;1.9 Acknowledgements;52
7.2;Chapter 2. DNA methods for identifying plant and animal species in food;53
7.2.1;2.1 Introduction;53
7.2.2;2.2 Meat species identification;54
7.2.3;2.3 Identifying species in dairy products, feedstuff and fish;60
7.2.4;2.4 Identifying plant species, cell lines and animal breeds;63
7.2.5;2.5 Comparison and validation of methods;64
7.2.6;2.6 Future trends;65
7.2.7;2.7 References;65
7.3;Chapter
3. Enzyme immunoassays for identifying animal species in food;73
7.3.1;3.1 Introduction;73
7.3.2;3.2 Principles of enzyme immunoassays;74
7.3.3;3.3 Applications: identifying animal species in meat, dairy and other foods;79
7.3.4;3.4 Advantages and disadvantages;83
7.3.5;3.5 Sources of further information and advice;84
7.3.6;3.6 References;85
7.4;Chapter
4. Proteome and metabolome analyses for food authentication;90
7.4.1;4.1 Introduction;90
7.4.2;4.2 The importance of proteomics and metabolomics;91
7.4.3;4.3 Proteome analysis;93
7.4.4;4.4 Metabolome analysis;99
7.4.5;4.5 Fingerprinting techniques;102
7.4.6;4.6 Applications: rapid authentication of food components;109
7.4.7;4.7 Future trends;111
7.4.8;4.8 Sources of further information and advice;112
7.4.9;4.9 References;113
7.5;Chapter
5. Near infra-red absorption technology for analysing food composition;120
7.5.1;5.1 Introduction;120
7.5.2;5.2 Principles of measurement;122
7.5.3;5.3 Instrumentation;129
7.5.4;5.4 Multi-component analysis of food products;137
7.5.5;5.5 Advantages and disadvantages;139
7.5.6;5.6 On-line applications;143
7.5.7;5.7 Future trends;146
7.5.8;5.8 References;148
7.6;Chapter
6. NMR spectroscopy in food authentication;150
7.6.1;6.1 Introduction;150
7.6.2;6.2 Using NMR spectroscopy: sample preparation;151
7.6.3;6.3 Data recording and processing;152
7.6.4;6.4 Signal assignment and chemometrics;156
7.6.5;6.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the NMR technique;157
7.6.6;6.6 Applications: authenticating oils, beverages, animal and other foods;159
7.6.7;6.7 Future trends;168
7.6.8;6.8 Sources of further information and advice;168
7.6.9;6.9 References;169
7.7;Chapter
7. Using stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) in food authentication and traceability;175
7.7.1;7.1 Introduction: stable isotopes;175
7.7.2;7.2 Principles of operation of IRMS;181
7.7.3;7.3 Current applications: adulteration of fruit juice, honey and wine;188
7.7.4;7.4 New applications: determining the geographical origin of foods;193
7.7.5;7.5 Future trends: position-specific isotope analysis (PSIA);197
7.7.6;7.6 Conclusion;199
7.7.7;7.7 References;200
7.8;Chapter
8. Spectrophotometric techniques;203
7.8.1;8.1 Introduction;203
7.8.2;8.2 Ultraviolet spectroscopy: detecting fruit and vegetable oil adulteration;204
7.8.3;8.3 Infra-red spectroscopy for food authentication;206
7.8.4;8.4 Fluorescence spectroscopy for food authentication;209
7.8.5;8.5 Raman spectroscopy for food authentication;210
7.8.6;8.6 Conclusion;213
7.8.7;8.7 References;213
7.9;Chapter
9. Gas chromatography;216
7.9.1;9.1 Introduction;216
7.9.2;9.2 Principles and technologies;217
7.9.3;9.3 Sample preparation;221
7.9.4;9.4 Applications: identifying flavour compounds;223
7.9.5;9.5 Advantages and disadvantages of gas chromatography;231
7.9.6;9.6 References;234
7.10;Chapter
10. High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) in food authentication;237
7.10.1;10.1 Introduction: principles and technologies;237
7.10.2;10.2 Authenticating fruit products;240
7.10.3;10.3 Authenticating oils;244
7.10.4;10.4 Authenticating other foods;247
7.10.5;10.5 Future trends;252
7.10.6;10.6 References;252
7.11;Chapter
11. Enzymatic techniques for authenticating food components;258
7.11.1;11.1 Introduction;258
7.11.2;11.2 Analysing enzymes in sugars, acids, salts, alcohols and other compounds;260
7.11.3;11.3 Sample materials and equipment;262
7.11.4;11.4 Sample preparation;265
7.11.5;11.5 Performing an assay;269
7.11.6;11.6 Routine enzymatic methods for food analysis and authentication;275
7.11.7;11.7 Advantages and disadvantages;287
7.11.8;11.8 Future trends;291
7.11.9;11.9 Abbreviations;292
7.11.10;11.10 References and further reading;292
7.12;Chapter
12. In-line sensors for food analysis;294
7.12.1;12.1 Introduction;294
7.12.2;12.2 Requirements for in-line sensors;295
7.12.3;12.3 Current commercial sensor systems;297
7.12.4;12.4 In-line sampling;303
7.12.5;12.5 Future trends;314
7.12.6;12.6 Sources of further information and advice;315
7.12.7;12.7 References;316
7.13;Chapter
13. Chemometrics in data analysis;318
7.13.1;13.1 Introduction;318
7.13.2;13.2 Data collection and display;319
7.13.3;13.3 Classification;329
7.13.4;13.4 Modelling;331
7.13.5;13.5 Calibration;332
7.13.6;13.6 Variable selection;334
7.13.7;13.7 Future trends;336
7.13.8;13.8 Conclusion: The advantages and disadvantages of chemometrics;337
7.13.9;13.9 Sources of further information and advice;338
7.13.10;13.10 References;339
8;Part II: Authenticating and tracing particular foods;340
8.1;Chapter
14. Species identification in processed seafoods;342
8.1.1;14.1 Introduction: the importance of species identification;342
8.1.2;14.2 The problem of species identification in seafood products;343
8.1.3;14.3 The use of biomolecules as species markers;344
8.1.4;14.4 The use of DNA for species identification;348
8.1.5;14.5 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques;348
8.1.6;14.6 Methods not requiring a previous knowledge of the sequence;350
8.1.7;14.7 Methods using sequence information;352
8.1.8;14.8 Future trends;357
8.1.9;14.9 Sources of further information and advice;359
8.1.10;14.10 References;360
8.2;Chapter
15. Meat and meat products;366
8.2.1;15.1 Introduction;366
8.2.2;15.2 Species identification;366
8.2.3;15.3 Meat content and adulteration;370
8.2.4;15.4 References;371
8.3;Chapter
16. Milk and dairy products;376
8.3.1;16.1 Introduction: authenticity issues for milk and dairy products;376
8.3.2;16.2 Detection and quantification of foreign fats;379
8.3.3;16.3 Identifying milk of different species;382
8.3.4;16.4 Other authenticity and traceability indices;386
8.3.5;16.5 Conclusions;390
8.3.6;16.6 References;391
8.4;Chapter
17. Cereals;397
8.4.1;17.1 Introduction;397
8.4.2;17.2 Wheat;397
8.4.3;17.3 Pasta;400
8.4.4;17.4 Rice;401
8.4.5;17.5 References;402
8.5;Chapter
18. Herbs and spices;405
8.5.1;18.1 Introduction: quality and adulteration issues;405
8.5.2;18.2 Whole spices and spice powders;411
8.5.3;18.3 Essential oils;416
8.5.4;18.4 Oleoresins;425
8.5.5;18.5 Testing for sensory quality and geographical origin;427
8.5.6;18.6 Future trends;430
8.5.7;18.7 References;430
8.6;Chapter
19. Identifying genetically modified organisms (GMOs);434
8.6.1;19.1 Introduction;434
8.6.2;19.2 Characteristics of transgenic crops;436
8.6.3;19.3 Labelling requirements;438
8.6.4;19.4 Detection methods and traceability systems for GMOs;440
8.6.5;19.5 Future trends;443
8.6.6;19.6 References;444
8.7;Chapter
20. Wine authenticity;445
8.7.1;20.1 Introduction: traditional and novel methods for testing wine authenticity;445
8.7.2;20.2 Analysis of minerals and trans-resveratrol;446
8.7.3;20.3 Analysis of phenols, volatiles and amino acids;450
8.7.4;20.4 The use of NMR, FT-IR and sensory techniques;457
8.7.5;20.5 Data analysis;462
8.7.6;20.6 Conclusions;469
8.7.7;20.7 References;470
9;Part III: Traceability;476
9.1;Chapter
21. Traceability in food processing: an introduction;478
9.1.1;21.1 Introduction: the key objectives of traceability;478
9.1.2;21.2 Traceability coding;479
9.1.3;21.3 Components of traceability systems;481
9.1.4;21.4 Using traceability systems when problems arise;486
9.1.5;21.5 Summary;490
9.1.6;21.6 References;490
9.2;Chapter
22. Developing traceability systems across the supply chain;492
9.2.1;22.1 Introduction;492
9.2.2;22.2 Accommodating multi-functional traceability requirements;495
9.2.3;22.3 Item-specific data capture;499
9.2.4;22.4 The EAN.UCC coding system;501
9.2.5;22.5 Data carrier technologies;504
9.2.6;22.6 Linking item-attendant data and database information;509
9.2.7;22.7 The FOODTRACE project;510
9.2.8;22.8 Conclusions;513
9.3;Chapter
23. Developing and implementing an effective traceability and product recall system;515
9.3.1;23.1 Introduction;515
9.3.2;23.2 Building traceability in the supply chain: an example;517
9.3.3;23.3 Key elements in a traceability system;517
9.3.4;23.4 Verifying control;521
9.3.5;23.5 Conclusions;523
9.3.6;23.6 Sources of further information and advice;524
9.3.7;23.7 References and further reading;524
9.4;Chapter
24. Traceability in fish processing;526
9.4.1;24.1 Introduction: the fish sector;526
9.4.2;24.2 Recent legislation in Europe and the rest of the world regarding traceability;529
9.4.3;24.3 Traceability systems in use today;530
9.4.4;24.4 External traceability systems: how to generate data and inform other links in the chain;532
9.4.5;24.5 Farmed fish – the difference between conventional and organic production;533
9.4.6;24.6 Attitudes towards traceability in the fish sector;534
9.4.7;24.7 References;535
9.5;Chapter
25. Safety and traceability of animal feed;537
9.5.1;25.1 Introduction;537
9.5.2;25.2 Requirements for safe feed production;538
9.5.3;25.3 Risks from animal feed;542
9.5.4;25.4 Control systems to manage risks: GMP and HACCP;555
9.5.5;25.5 The role and requirements of traceability systems;561
9.5.6;25.6 Future trends: hazard early warning systems;566
9.5.7;25.7 Abbreviations;568
9.5.8;25.8 References;569
9.6;Chapter
26. Geographic traceability of cheese;573
9.6.1;26.1 Introduction;573
9.6.2;26.2 Approaches to identifying geographical origin;574
9.6.3;26.3 Analytical methods: primary indicators;578
9.6.4;26.4 Analytical methods: secondary indicators;581
9.6.5;26.5 Conclusion;590
9.6.6;26.6 References;591
9.7;Chapter
27. Advanced DNA-based detection techniques for genetically modified food;594
9.7.1;27.1 Introduction;594
9.7.2;27.2 Issues in detecting genetically modified organisms (GMOs);596
9.7.3;27.3 Developing improved GMO detection methods;600
9.7.4;27.4 Future trends in detecting GMOs in food;605
9.7.5;27.5 References;611
10;Index;614

Leseproben

1 Advanced PCR techniques in identifying food components
N. Marmiroli; C. Peano; E. Maestri    University of Parma, Italy 1.1 Introduction
The development of fast low-cost DNA synthesis procedures, which produce a new fragment of DNA with a specific nucleotide sequence has greatly accelerated molecular cloning and DNA characterisation. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) developed by Kary Mullis (U.S. patent 4683202) has also had a major impact. The possibility of generating great quantities of DNA by amplifying fragments of genomic or cloned cDNA has greatly increased the possibility of screening gene-banks, analysing mutation, mapping chromosomes and thousands of other applications (Saiki et al., 1985). The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), the repetitive bi-directional DNA synthesis via primer extension of a region of nucleic acid, is simple in design and can be applied in seemingly endless ways. PCR amplification of a template requires two oligonucleotides primers, the four deoxynucleotides triphosphates (dNTPs), Magnesium ions in molar excess of the dNTPs, and a thermostable DNA polymerase to perform the DNA synthesis (Dieffenbach and Dveksler, 1995). The PCR reaction has a great efficacy, but this must be measured also by its specificity, efficiency and accuracy that depend on a number of parameters. In vitro DNA replication has been accomplished from many different sources (Saiki et al., 1985; Mullis and Faloona, 1987; Keohavong et al., 1988; Saiki et al., 1988) The initial PCR procedure described by Saiki et al. (1985) used the Klenow fragment of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I. This enzyme was heat labile and fresh enzyme had to be added during each cycle following the denaturation and primer hybridisation steps. Introduction of the thermostable Taq polymerase, the DNA polymerase obtained from Thermus aquaticus, in PCR (Saiki et al., 1988) resolved this problem and made possible the automation of the thermal cycling in the procedure. Virtually all forms of DNA and RNA are suitable substrates for PCR. These include genomic, plasmid, and phage DNA, previously amplified DNA, cDNA, and mRNA. Samples prepared via standard molecular methodologies (Sambrook et al., 1989) are sufficiently pure for PCR, and usually no extra purification steps are required. In general the efficiency of PCR is greater for smaller-size template DNA than for high molecular weight DNA. For many applications of PCR, primers are designed to be exactly complementary to the template. However, for other applications, such as allele specific PCR, the engineering of mutations or of new restriction endonuclease sites into a specific region of the genome, and cloning of homologous genes where sequence information is lacking, base pair mismatches are introduced either intentionally or unavoidably (Kwok et al., 1995). In either case, an ideal pair of primers should hybridise efficiently to the target sequence with negligible hybridisation to other related sequences that are present in the sample. Studies have shown that different DNA polymerases have distinct characteristics that affect the efficiency of PCR. For example Taq Polymerase does not have the 3'-5' exonuclease proofreading function, and as a result, it has a relatively high error rate in PCR (Lawyer et al., 1989). 1.1.1 How PCR techniques work
The PCR reaction allows the million-fold amplification of a specific target DNA fragment framed by two primers (synthetic oligonucleotides, complementary to either one of the two strands of the target sequence). The PCR is a multiple-process with consecutive cycles of three different temperatures, where the number of target sequences grows exponentially according to the number of cycles. In each cycle (Fig. 1.1) the three temperatures correspond to three different steps in the reaction (Dieffenbach and Dveksler, 1995). Fig. 1.1 Schematic representation of the three steps in PCR amplification: denaturation of the template DNA, hybridisation of the primers, extension by Taq polymerase. Temperatures in the hybridisation (or annealing) step may vary. In the first step the template, the DNA serving as master copy for the DNA polymerase is separated into single strands by heat denaturation at ~ 95 °C. In the second step the reaction mix is cooled down to a temperature of 50–60 °C (depending on the composition of the primers used) to allow the annealing of the primers to the target sequence. Primer hybridisation is favoured over DNA/DNA hybridisation because of the excess of primers molecules. In the third step, the annealed primers are extended using a Thermus aquaticus (Taq) polymerase at the optimum temperature of 72 °C. With the elongation of the primers, a copy of the target sequence is generated. The cycle of these three different temperatures is then repeated from 20 to 50 times, depending on the amount of DNA present and the length of the amplicon (amplified DNA fragment). In order to use PCR, the analyst must know the exact nucleotide sequence that flank both ends of the target DNA region. Any PCR-based detection strategy will thus depend on the selection of the oligonucleotide primers and the detailed knowledge of the molecular structure and DNA sequences used. Faster cycling with better temperature control using capillaries in air heated thermal cyclers has improved PCR specificity. ‘Rapid cycle’ PCR requires amplification cycles of 20–60 sec and the whole procedure of amplification, 30 cycles, only 10–30 min. Rapid cycle is based on a ‘kinetic’ rather than an ‘equilibrium’ paradigm for PCR. Whereas in the equilibrium mode 3 reactions occur at 3 temperatures for 3 times during each cycle, in the kinetic mode both temperature transition and denaturation and annealing are in a constant state of change (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Suggested temperatures and times parameters for ‘rapid cycle’ PCR Temperature (°C) Time (sec) Denaturation 941 0 Annealing 30 + 0.5 0 Extension 742 0.033 1. For products with GC domains consider adding DMSO or formamide and/or increasing the temperature. 2. Need to be lower for products with high AT domains. 3. For products < 100 bp an extension time of 0 sec must be used. Confirmation/verification of the identity of the amplicon is necessary to ensure that the amplified DNA really corresponds to the chosen target sequence and is not a by-product of un-specific binding of the primers. For this purpose several methods are available such as gel electrophoresis to verify if the PCR products have the expected size and purity. However, this is not always enough and the PCR products should additionally be verified for their restriction endonuclease profile. Analysing PCR products during amplification has become known as ‘real-time PCR’. Even more reliable is a Southern Blot assay in which the amplicon is separated by gel electrophoresis, transferred onto a membrane and hybridised to a specific DNA probe. Another possible control is to subject the PCR product to a second round of PCR. This technique is called nested PCR and exploits two different sets of primers, an outer and an inner pair that are used in two consecutive rounds of PCR amplifications. This technique reduces nearly to zero the possibilities of un-specific amplifications (Zimmermann et al., 1994). Nevertheless the most reliable way to confirm the authenticity of a PCR product is its sequencing. This method depends on DNA quality and purity. DNA quality is determined by fragment length and degree of damage. Damage may be caused by exposure to heat, low pH, nucleases that cause hydrolysis, depurination and enzymatic degradation. DNA isolated from processed foods and certain agricultural matrixes is usually of low quality and available target sequences may be rather short (Ahmed, 2002); thus an appropriate choice of primers to obtain short amplicons should be made. DNA purity can also be severely affected by various contaminants in food matrices (Ahmed, 2002). Contaminants may be substances that originate from the material under examination: polysaccharides, lipids and polyphenols or chemicals used during the DNA extraction procedure (CTAB-cetyltrimethylammonium bromide or hexadecyltrymethyl ammonium bromide). The Taq Polymerase, the key enzyme used in the PCR reaction is inhibited by contaminants such as polysaccharides, EDTA, phenol and SDS. All these compounds can thus affect the amplification reaction. 1.2 Qualitative and quantitative PCR techniques
1.2.1 Qualitative techniques
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been used in many different applications because it has a very great flexibility in the field of molecular biology. Its principal use is to generate a large amount of a desired DNA product starting from a given template, but it can be used also to amplify very long fragments of DNA and in such a way to...