E-Book, Englisch, 1108 Seiten
Strüder / Jonath / Scholz Track & Field
1. Auflage 2023
ISBN: 978-1-78255-528-5
Verlag: Meyer & Meyer Sport (UK) Ltd.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark
Training & Movement Science - Theory and Practice for All Disciplines
E-Book, Englisch, 1108 Seiten
ISBN: 978-1-78255-528-5
Verlag: Meyer & Meyer Sport (UK) Ltd.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark
This book is officially certified by World Athletics (WA) and is the most comprehensive guide on track & field currently available. Track & Field outlines in detail the cross-disciplinary aspects of training and presents the information as small training theory, which enhances understanding of the special training and movement theory of the various disciplines also presented. Introduced in this book are the basics of training theory, such as main motor stress forms; adaptation and performance; training control; training methods; and general training concepts. The comprehensive training content also includes 96 games and exercises for coordination, flexibility, and strength development. The book goes even further than training method by presenting comparisons of different disciplines, history of training, competition rules, phase structure, and technique, all backed by sports science. It is a textbook for all athletes, coaches, trainers, and sports students and teachers from youth athletics to high-performance training. Also included is a foreword by WA president, Sebastian Coe.
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Heiko K. Strüder is president of the German Sport University Cologne; head of the Institute of Movement and Neurosciences; and chair of Training and Movement Theory in Individual Sports (Athletics - Swimming - Gymnastics). Ulrich Jonath was the long-time head of the division for athletics at the German Sport University Cologne; lecturer at the local Coaches' Academy; World Athletics coach educator and national coach of the German Athletics Federation (DLV); coach and international lecturer; and author of numerous textbooks and educational films. Kai Scholz has a graduate degree in Sport Science. He is a secondary school teacher and A-level coach of the German Athletics Federation (DLV), and he lectures on athletics at the German Sport University Cologne.
Autoren/Hrsg.
Weitere Infos & Material
1MAJOR TYPES OF MOTOR STRESS
In order to carry out optimal training, the following questions must be answered: •Which factors have an effect that limits performance in specific sports? •Which available measurements can accurately determine the current situation and the effects of training? •Which training methods work best for individual athletes? As a basis to answering these questions, Hollmann introduced the concept of major types of motor stress to training theory in 1967. These include: •coordination, •flexibility, •strength, •speed, and •endurance. Of course, there are smooth transitions and overlapping areas between these various categories. Nevertheless, a conceptual distinction is helpful to develop a precise understanding of factors which limit performance and specific training adaptations as well as the required training stimuli. In particular, specific factors pertaining to age and gender must be considered. A detailed presentation of the major types of motor stress and additional reference works can be found in Hollmann and Strüder (2009). 1.1COORDINATION
(Movement) coordination is defined as the interaction of the central nervous system (CNS; the brain and spinal cord) and the skeletal muscles within a specific sequence of movements. Intramuscular coordination (IC) refers to the interaction between nerves and muscles within a specific sequence of movements in a single muscle, while intermuscular coordination is the interaction of various muscles during a specific sequence of movements. The term technique is often used when coordination is meant during specific movements in sports. However, the individual technique specific to a sport is also limited by the other major types of motor stress. For example, the technical behaviour of a jumper during the flight phase depends significantly on the time available, which is determined by the vertical velocity of departure as a result of jumping strength. The neuromuscular function provides the physiological basis for coordination. All muscle groups in the body are represented in the cerebral cortex. Voluntary movements are based on the integration of the motor and sensory system (see figure 2). Here, the cerebellum and the basal ganglia (a collection of nerve cell bodies) play an important role. In particular, the cerebellum receives sensory information and then modulates the temporal interaction and the direction of movements. The basal ganglia are primarily responsible for the regulation of movement speed. The brain stem and the motor nuclei in the thalamus control the functions of the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. This occurs in contrast to the motor part of the cerebral cortex, which initiates movements by planning which motor neurones (nerve cells) shall be used. A portion of the pre-frontal cortex, the pre-motor strip, is specifically used for the design of actions. From here, complex sequences of motor actions are controlled. The excitation of the motor centres in the cerebrum increases the impulses of the gamma system and prepares the pre-start state. This includes an increase in muscle tone (basic tension of the muscle) with a sensitivity increase of mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors. The latter include the muscle spindles, the Golgi tendon organs, and the joint receptors. This will allow smooth and properly dosed movements. DISCOURSE I:
IMPORTANT TERMS TO UNDERSTAND THE MOTOR SYSTEM Fibre, afferent/efferent Afferent: conducting inwards; afferent nerve fibres transmit information (impulses) taken from the periphery to the CNS. Efferent: conducting outward; efferent nerve fibres transmit information from the CNS to the executive organs in the periphery; in the case of motor-efferent fibres, the muscles are the effector organs. Fibre, extrafusal/intrafusal Extrafusal muscle fibres make up the bulk of the skeletal muscles and cannot be found within the sensory muscle spindle. Intrafusal muscle fibres can be found in the muscle spindle; their contraction initiates or modulates the sensory discharge. Golgi tendon organ Sensory element in the tendons of muscles, which is activated by elongation or contraction of the muscle; an important receptor type in the muscle; it consists primarily of an afferent nerve fibre whose endings are located in the tendons between the muscle and the bone; these nerve fibres have many ramifications among the individual tendon fibres near the muscular origin of the tendon. Motor neurone One of the three major functional types of neurones, a motor neurone is a nerve cell which is involved in movement processes; motor neurones form synapses with muscle cells, transmit information from the CNS, and translate them into muscle movement. Alpha motor neurones regulate the length of the extrafusal fibres in the muscle (also called skeletomotor system), alpha motor neurones innervate the intrafusal muscle fibres of the muscle spindle and, using the proprioceptive reflex arc, trigger a contraction of the striated muscles. The muscle length during a contraction of the muscle is influenced by the gamma efferences; the gamma motor system adjusts the threshold and sensitivity of the stretch receptor. Muscle spindle A spindle-shaped structure in the skeletal muscle which contains small muscle fibres and receptors, the muscle spindles are activated by stretching. Neurite (axon)/dendrite A long/short extension of the neurones (nerve cells). Proprioception Deep sensitivity; perception of the position and movement of the body in space; through specific receptors (proprioceptors), information is registered about muscle tension, muscle length, and joint position or movement. Reflex Involuntary movement or other response which is caused by the activation of sense organs and is conducted via one or more synapses in the CNS. Spinal ganglion Thickening of nerve cells in the posterior root of the spinal cord; contains cell bodies. Synapse Point of contact between nerve cells or nerve cells and muscle cells or nerve cells and sensory cells; the intermediate space between the membranes of the pre-synaptic and the post-synaptic cell in a chemical synapse through which the transmitter (messenger substance) diffuses is referred to as synaptic cleft; monosynaptic means a connection with only one synapse. At the beginning of the motion sequence, the muscle spindles provide the target value of muscle length necessary to solve the motor task. In addition, the muscle spindles continuously measure the length of the muscle during movement execution. Only the simultaneous action in the antagonistic muscles allows for movements which are most finely graded in terms of force. The two muscle groups that enable movements in opposite directions at a joint are called agonists and antagonists. Figure 2: Motor areas of the cerebral cortex. These affect the motor spinal nerves both directly and through the brain stem. All three levels of the system receive sensory information and are affected by the mutually independent systems of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum (modified on the basis of Hollmann and Strüder, 2009, p. 21). The following factors are crucial for the quality of coordination: •consideration of the physical laws that are relevant for the respective motion; •degree of exercise of the agonist-antagonist muscles active during the respective motion; and •adaptation state of the vestibular system (vestibular apparatus). Depending on preliminary training as well as the type and frequency of stress on the muscle groups, the optimal level of coordination for each individual is reached at different ages. In men and women, movements which are not specifically trained may likely reach their individually optimal quality at about the age of 20. Accelerated growth and an early start of specific practice can lead to achieving an optimal level of coordination at a much earlier age. The more complicated the movements in a discipline, the more emphasis should be placed on starting coordination training as early as possible. If specific coordination exercises are started at an early age, optimal coordination can already be achieved by the age of 12 or 13. Disturbances in the longitudinal growth of young people (ratio of trunk to leg length), which during certain developmental phases are caused by accelerated growth and which have adverse effects on coordination, deserve special attention. Without special exercises there is a decline in the quality of coordination at old age. Improvement in the quality of coordination through practising the respective movement sequence is primarily achieved by facilitating (ingraining) the corresponding specific movement pattern. The better the quality of coordination, the more straightforward, effortless, and precise the movement goal is achieved. The movement sequences become more fluent and economic, and the superfluous luxury movements, typical for beginners, disappear. This leads to a decrease in energy expenditure and thus the demand for oxygen during a given muscular activity. Due to the...
